CAPRI (2018) Managing plastic waste single use plastic bags, Jamaica.pdf

MANAGING
PLASTIC WASTE
SINGLE-USE PLASTIC BAGS


MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE
SINGLE-USE PLASTIC BAGS

LEAD RESEARCHER: DESIREE PHILLIPS


CONTENTS

Executive Summary 1

Acronyms 1

Purpose 1

Background 1

Jamaica does not manage solid waste effectively 1

The increased presence of single-use plastic bag in our
waste stream has negative economic and health impacts 2

Benefits and Challenges: Bans and Fees 8

Key Determinants of Success: Bans and Fees 9

3.3 Other Measures 10

3.5 Benefits and Challenges: Biodegradable bags 14

3.6 Summary and Implications for Jamaica 15

References 19

Additional Readings 22


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Globally, plastic production has been
growing rapidly. Between 1964 and 2014 the
production of plastics increased twenty-fold, from
15 million tons (MT) to 311 MT; this figure is ex-
pected to double within the next twenty years.1 Plas-
tics currently offer unrivalled properties including
versatility, durability and low cost, making it the
preferred material of the modern economy. How-
ever, current usage levels and disposal methods
have significant environmental and economic costs.

In Jamaica, current usage levels and improper dis-
posal of single-use plastic bags 2 are generating sig-
nificant economic costs. These materials often clog
drainage ways causing floods. They also place sig-
nificant burden on the resources of the National
Solid Waste Management Authority (NSWMA).

This report identifies and evaluates policies and best
practices used in other countries to manage plastic
bag waste and makes recommendations taking into
account the specifics of the Jamaican context. For
management of single-use plastic bags, we recom-
mend the implementation of bag fees over bans, due
to the high risk of emergence of black markets which
has occurred in almost all countries where bans have
been applied, undermining the ban’s effectiveness.
Fees have been shown to discourage plastic bag use
with no major compliance issues, achieving reduc-
tion rates that were close to elimination within a year.

The success of the proposed policy relies on the ex-
istence of certain preconditions. It requires extensive
consultation with key stakeholders, and public educa-
tion and awareness campaigns to sensitize the public
and increase cooperation. Prior to the introduction of
bag fees, the government should promote and facilitate
the increased availability of sustainable alternatives like
reusable bags, to encourage support for the initiative.

Summary of recommendations for the government
to manage single-use plastic bag waste in Jamaica.


1. Pass a law requiring retailers to charge for
single-use plastic carrier bags.

2. Require large retailers to report on proceeds
from the fee scheme.

3. Direct the enforcement agency to revise usage
reduction targets and fees regularly.

4. Consult and collaborate with stakeholders
towards effective implementation of fees.

5. Implement bag fees within three months of
the law being passed.

6. Launch a national clean-up day.

1 Plastics – The Facts 2015,” PlasticsEurope,. (www.plasticseurope.org)
2 Lightweight high density polyethylene (HDPE) bags produced for one-time use.

MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE - PLASTIC BAGS |2


ACRONYMS

EU: European Union

NEPA: National Environment and Planning Agency

NGO: Non-Governmental Organisation

NSWMA: National Solid Waste Management Authority

RJR: Radio Jamaica

STATIN: Statistical Institute of Jamaica

UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme

UK: United Kingdom

US: United States

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This report seeks to outline policies to effectively manage the plastic
waste arising from light-weight High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), also
known as single-use plastic carrier bags, in Jamaica. The objectives of
the report are to:


\

MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE - PLASTIC BAGS |4

PURPOSE

Provide an overview of the current situation
regarding single-use plastic bag usage and
management in Jamaica.

Examine measures used in other countries
to manage single-use plastic bags.

Propose policy measures to better
manage single-use plastic bags.

PURPOSE


1 - Background

1.1 Jamaica does not manage solid waste
effectively

Jamaica currently lacks the necessary capacity to
collect and dispose of its solid waste in an efficient
and environmentally sound manner. In Jamaica,
and throughout Latin America and the Caribbean
(LAC), solid waste management has not been given
the attention it requires at it has to compete with oth-
er pressing economic and social issues such as fiscal
deficits, poverty and unemployment. Consequently,
only 54% of the region’s solid waste is disposed of in
sanitary landfills. 3 In recent years several reports in
the Jamaican media have highlighted the resource
deficiencies of the National Solid Waste Manage-
ment Agency (NSWMA) citing shortages of trucks
for garbage collection and frequent garbage pile-ups. 4

About 75% of solid waste generated is collected at
legal dumpsites; 5 the uncollected waste is either
buried, burnt or littered, often ending up in drains,
rivers, gullies, beaches and ultimately the ocean.

1.2 PET bottles and single-use plastic bags place
an increasing burden on solid waste manage-
ment in Jamaica

The composition of waste collected in Jamaica is
mostly organic and compostable. However, plas-
tics, which are inorganic and non-compostable, 6
make up around 15% of the waste generated, mak-
ing it the second most collected waste material. 7

With growth and modernization, the consumption
of plastics in Jamaica continues to rise; as shown
in Figure 1 plastic bags are the second most domi-
nant packaging material, and have shown a signif-
icant upward trend in consumption in recent years.


3 IDB (2010).
4 “NSWMA Still Faced with Garbage Truck Shortage,” Radio Jamaica (RJR) News Online, July 1, 2016. (http://rjrnewsonline.com/local/nswma-still-
faced-with-garbage-truck-shortage)
5 “NSWMA Undertakes Plastic Bottle Recycling Project,” Jamaica Information Services (JIS), July 30, 2016. (http://jis.gov.jm/nswma-undertakes-plas-
tic-bottle-recycling-project/)
6 NSWMA,”Waste Characterization Study 2015”. (www.nswma.gov.jm/resources/NSWMA%20-%20Waste%20Characterization%20Studies%20-%20
2015.pdf)
7 “Waste Characterization Study,” ibid.

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75%
of solid waste generated is
collected at legal dumpsites.

15%
Plastics make up

of the waste collected.


As illustrated in Figure 1, plastic bag imports prac-
tically doubled from 2011 to 2015, going from 4
million kilograms or 720 million bags to 7 million
kilograms, or approximately 1.3 billion bags. 9 In
Jamaica, plastic bag usage is relatively high at ap-
proximately 500 bags per person in 2015, 10 com-
pared to more developed countries where plastic
bag usage of 170-200 bags per person are common.

With no formal waste separation or recy-
cling policy, single use plastic bags are disposed
of comingled with all domestic waste; how-
ever, a considerable amount becomes litter.

Indeed, single-use plastic bags are some of the most com-
mon items found in waterways, drains, gullies, oceans
and beaches. As these plastics persist in the environ-
ment, they pose a threat to infrastructure and cause last-
ing unsightly scenery and damage to the environment.

8 Chart with statistics taken from “The Increased Demand for and Relevancy of Waste Statistics,” Environment Statistics Section United Nations Statis-
tics Division (UNSD)/DESA, Issue 40. December 2016. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/envpdf/Issue40.pdf
9 Average weight of an HDPE bag is 5.5 grams (Shopping Bag Quantity Assumptions, 2013)
10 Jamaica’s population is 2.7 million. (http://statinja.gov.jm/Demo_SocialStats/PopulationStats.aspx)

MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE - PLASTIC BAGS |6

Figure 1: Imports of Plastic for Packaging or Conveyance: 2011-2015, kg

Source: International Mechandise Trade; Statistical Institute of Jamaica (STATIN)


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Government

• The National Environment and Plan-
ning Agency (NEPA) launched a public educa-
tion initiative in July 2016. This was done with
the unveiling of a ‘plastic bag monster’ made of
single-use plastic bags to encourage the use of
re-usable shopping bags.

• Senate approved a motion proposing a
ban on the use of plastic bags and Styrofoam
containers in October 2016, and a working group
on plastic packaging material was established to
develop a policy framework for the management
of these materials. The preliminary recommenda-
tion of the group is to implement a ban on sin-
gle-use plastic bags.

Non-governmental Organizations NGOs

• The Jamaica Environment Trust (JET) has
been promoting the use of re-usable bags through
its Nuh Dutty Up Jamaica public awareness and
education campaign.

Corporate

Corporate entities have shown support for a re-
duction in the use of single-use plastic bags.

• Major retailer PriceSmart is known for
its non-distribution of single-use plastic bags
and instead, offering reusable bags for sale to its
customers.

• In 2015 restaurant chain Island Grill trad-
ed its plastic bags for paper bags.

• Packaging manufacturer Flexpak Limited
in 2017 launched a line of “oxo-biodegradable”
plastic bags.  The use of an additive to the reg-
ular petroleum-based plastic resin is supposed
to speed up the degradation of the conventional
plastic bag.

Box 3.1: Some Initiatives in Jamaica

NEPA’s “Plastic Monster”


1.2 PET bottles and single-use plastic bags place
an increasing burden on solid waste manage-
ment in Jamaica

Economic

Plastic bags, if improperly disposed of, block drains
which can result in flooding. A flooding incident on
Marcus Garvey Drive, one of Jamaica’s busiest thor-
oughfares, in September 2016 resulted in J$200-J$300
million loss for the Sugar Company of Jamaica;
11 the company suffered damage to their building
and much of their equipment was severely dam-
aged or destroyed. A flooding incident in Montego
Bay in November 2017 caused significant damage
to infrastructure, buildings and personal property,
the cost of which was estimated to be J$1 billion.12

Single-use plastic bags are extremely lightweight and
are often blown out of trash cans, garbage trucks and
landfills, eventually ending up in the sea. This can re-
sult in the entanglement of marine organisms, killing
them. Microplastics resulting from plastic bag degra-
dation in the environment may also be ingested by ma-
rine animals resulting in their injury or death. Death
of marine animals results in economic loss associated
with the intrinsic value of sea life, but also in economic
loss of the instrumental value that such sea life holds
for the tourism and fishing industry, both of which
represent significant economic value for Jamaica.

Health

Serious human and ecological health impacts can re-
sult from the improper disposal of plastic bags. When
plastic debris is left lying outside, it collects rainwa-
ter and facilitates the creation of artificial habitats
and potential breeding sites for disease-carrying in-
sects like the Aedes Aegypti mosquito, facilitating
the spread of diseases like Zika and dengue fever.

When burned, plastic materials release toxic chemi-
cals in to the air which can result in respiratory prob-
lems if inhaled, posing a health risk to humans and
animals. Furthermore, as mentioned previously, mi-
croplastics are consumed by marine animals and end
up in the food chain; since plastics act as substrates
for toxic chemicals and other harmful substances,
these substances are also ingested with plastic par-
ticles, possibly having negative health implications.

In Jamaica a number of initiatives to deal with the
reduction of plastic waste have been launched by
public and private sector, as well as by the NGO
community. However, these initiatives are spo-
radic in nature and are not supported by any spe-
cific regulation or national policy. Many activities
are not coordinated or sustained, limiting their
overall effectiveness. A coherent and cohesive pol-
icy framework is required for a sustained and ef-
fective approach to reduce single-use plastic bags.

This study explores actions taken in both developed
and developing countries in this regard, and recom-
mends appropriate measures for Jamaica. Chapter
two reviews measures to manage single-use plas-
tic bag waste, and chapter three makes policy rec-
ommendations based on the findings of this report.

11 “Sugar Company, Fisheries Division hardest hit by flooding on Marcus Garvey Drive,” Jamaica Observer, September 12, 2016. (www.jamaicaobserv-
er.com/news/Sugar-Company--Fisheries-Division-hardest-hit-by-flooding-on-Marcus_73788)
12 “$1-B damage,” Jamaica Observer, November 30, 2017. (www.jamaicaobserver.com/observer-west-front-page/-1-b-damage_118571?profile=1373)
13 Microplastics are extremely small pieces of plastic debris.
14 UNEP (2016).

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Box 3.2 Plastic Bag Levy in Ireland

In 2002 Ireland imposed a levy on plastic bags with a law requiring retailers
to charge a €0.15 cent levy to customers at point of sale. This resulted in 90%
of customers turning to reusable bags within a year, and one billion fewer
plastic bags used.

In 2007, however, the country began to see an increase in the use of plastic bags again. The
levy was raised to €0.22 cents; the €0.07 cent increase led to a subsequent decline in plas-
tic bag usage and a significant reduction in roadside litter. Millions of dollars have been gen-
erated from this tax and put into a green fund to help finance environmental projects.
To maximize compliance, retailers must pay the money accumulated from the levy to Revenue (the tax
authority in Ireland), who later passes it on to the Department of Environment. Revenue carries out
checks on a selective basis, to ensure full compliance with regulations. In addition, retailers must record:


• opening stock of plastic bags,

• plastic bag purchases, and

• plastic bags supplied to customers where the levy applies.

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Fees

Fees are any charges on plastic bags that are addi-
tional to the market value and may or may not be in
the form of a tax. By obliging consumers to pay for
each plastic bag, which would normally be distribut-
ed with no direct cost to the consumer, they are like-
ly to use fewer bags, re-use or bring their own. This
is the rationale behind placing a fee on single-use
plastic bags. The implementation of bag fees is usu-
ally accompanied by the promotion and increased
availability of more sustainable alternatives such
as reusable shopping bags or biodegradable bags.15

Plastic bag fees can be applied either directly by
charging consumers at the point of sale, or indirectly
by applying a fee at the manufacturing or import level.

Direct Implementation of Fees

In England, the law requires large retailers to charge
customers for all single-use plastic carrier bags at point
of sale; smaller businesses can charge on a voluntary
basis. Following the introduction of a £0.05p (US$0.08
cents) charge on bags, plastic bag usage declined by
85% within six months.16 The bag fee is not a tax and
the money does not go to the government, however,
retailers are encouraged to give the proceeds of the
scheme to support environmental and other causes.
Further, retailers are asked to report to the government
on the number of bags distributed each year and what
was done with the funds obtained from the charge.17
Similar approaches to bag fees have been implement-
ed in Wales and Scotland which saw decreases in plas-
tic bag use as high as 96% and 80%, respectively. 18

Closer to home, in Barbados large retailers and NGOs
voluntarily came together to implement a plastic
bag charge of Bd$0.20 (US$0.10 cents) per bag as
of June 2017.19 Retailers account for 60-70% of sin-
gle-use plastic bags distributed to consumers. Effects
of the fee in Barbados have not yet been assessed.

Another example of direct implementation of bag fees
can be viewed in Ireland, where the government im-
posed a tax on plastic bags to customers at point of
sale.20 Similar taxes have been implemented in oth-
er countries, including Botswana and South Africa.

Indirect Implementation of Fees

In 1994, Denmark introduced a tax on plastic bags
for manufacturers and importers who are required
to pay the tax based on weight. Retailers in turn,
pay a tax-loaded price when they purchase bags,
and while they are not required to pass on the tax to
their customers, some retailers have used the tax as
a lever to charge customers for plastic bags and pro-
mote the use of re-usable bags. Other retailers inte-
grate the cost of the tax into the price of other goods
as opposed to charging a fee per bag. Usage of sin-
gle use plastic bags in Denmark declined by 66%
within the first year of implementation of the tax.21

In general, direct application of fees on customers
achieves higher reduction rates in usage than indirect
applications. For example, in the case of Denmark’s
indirect application, the tax is paid by retailers when
they purchase bags, rather than by shoppers, achiev-
ing significantly less reduction in usage than in Ire-
land, where the tax is applied directly to consumers.

15 These alternatives will be discussed further in this chapter
16 “England’s plastic bag usage drops 85% since 5p charge introduced,” The Guardian, July 30, 2016. (www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/jul/30/
england-plastic-bag-usage-drops-85-per-cent-since-5p-charged-introduced)
17 “Carrier bags: why there’s a charge,” Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, UK, 2018. (www.gov.uk/government/publications/single-
use-plastic-carrier-bags-why-were-introducing-the-charge/carrier-bags-why-theres-a-5p-charge)
18 “List By Country; ‘Bag Charges, Taxes And Bans’,” Big Fat Bags, 2017. (www.bigfatbags.co.uk/bans-taxes-charges-plastic-bags/)
19 “Retailers on Caribbean island of Barbados introduce a voluntary plastic bag charge,” Cyan Caribbean, May 28, 2017. (www.cyancaribbean.com/
single-post/2017/05/28/Retailers-on-Caribbean-island-of-Barbados-introduce-a-voluntary-plastic-bag-charge)
20 Further details on its impact and implementation in Ireland are discussed in Box 3.2.
21 “List By Country,” ibid.

MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE - PLASTIC BAGS |10

2 - Managing single-use plastic waste


Box 3.3: Rwanda Plastic Bag Ban
In 2008, Rwanda became one of the first countries in the world to place a ban on
non-biodegradable plastic bags. Plastic bags were causing several water sources
to become highly polluted and plastics were being found inside many dead fish.

The policy involved extensive public sen-
sitization. In 2004, the Ministry of Envi-
ronment began conducting studies on the
use of plastic bags in Rwanda and subse-
quently implemented a national clean-up
day. The president took part in this event,
bringing increased awareness of the prob-
lem of plastics to many Rwandans. Further
to this, NGOs were engaged and partici-
pated in the design of alternative bags that
were more environmentally sustainable.

The ban has proven to be highly effective
in maintaining a clean and healthy envi-
ronment, and the country has developed
an international reputation for cleanli-
ness – its capital city Kigali is often laud-
ed as Africa’s cleanest city and was offi-
cially named the cleanest city in Africa
in 2008 by United Nations (UN) Habitat.

Rwanda’s plastic bag ban has its chal-
lenges. The private sector resisted,
citing fears that it would increase
their operational cost and raise pric-
es as they would have to seek more
expensive alternatives. Furthermore,
the ban brought about the emer-
gence of a thriving black market.

However, authorities continuous-
ly carry out random and robust
checks to suppress this illegal ac-
tivity, and smugglers are subject
to fines and jail time once caught.

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Kigali Airport, Rwanda


Bans

A ban makes the sale and use of plastic bags illegal.
Bans have the potential to eliminate plastic bag use,
however, they can be met with significant resistance,
particularly from industry players. The implementa-
tion of bans is usually accompanied by the introduction
of alternatives, similar to the case of plastic bag fees.

In 2002, Bangladesh became the first coun-
try to place a strict ban on plastic bags. Af-
ter the ban was implemented, the bags were
not used for at least a year. However, more
than a decade later, plastic bags are once
again freely exchanged due to lack of en-
forcement and of cost-effective alternatives.

The business community, particularly small retailers
and vendors, cite that the lack of cost-effective alter-
natives erodes profits as in some instances, alterna-
tives cost as much as ten-fold that of a plastic bag.22
Rwanda, who implemented the ban a few years lat-
er, becoming the first African nation to introduce a
strict ban and achieved somewhat greater success. 23

China adopted a hybrid approach as it imposed a ban on
ultra-thin plastic bags in 2008, and banned the distri-
bution of free plastic bags to shoppers in retail outlets.24
The results of this ban vary across China’s jurisdictions.

However, the overall move led to a 66% decline in plas-
tic bag usage, equivalent to forty billion fewer plas-
tic bags– within the first year.25 It also resulted in the
closure of the state’s biggest plastic bag manufacturer.

In July 2016, Antigua and Barbuda became the first
Caribbean nation to impose a ban on plastic bags,
prohibiting the importation and use of plastic bags
except for those used for garbage collection. The gov-
ernment pledged to distribute 120,000 reusable bags.

The move was embraced by major supermarkets who
joined the government in distributing one reusable
bag to each customer. Prior to the implementation
of the ban, Cabinet decided to waive taxes and du-
ties on the importation of reusable shopping bags
to encourage supermarkets to support the initia-
tive and make the bags more affordable.26 Just over
a year later, the country has experienced mixed re-
sults as large supermarkets and businesses have
been conforming but compliance among smaller
retailers has been problematic. To improve compli-
ance, the government has stated that it will distrib-
ute more reusable bags to smaller supermarkets. 27

In 2007 and 2011, the government of Kenya attempted
to abolish the use of polythene plastic bags,28 but failed
largely due to strong opposition from manufacturers
and lack of enforcement.29 In September 2017 however,
a total ban was reintroduced. Now Kenyans producing,
selling or even using plastic bags will risk imprison-
ment of up to four years or fines of US$40,000.30 This is
now the world’s strictest law against plastic pollution.

22 “Plastics proliferate despite ban,” Irin News, March 2, 2011. (www.irinnews.org/report/92072/bangladesh-plastics-proliferate-despite-ban)
23

24 Plastic bags under 0.025mm.
25 “One year after plastic bag ban, how is China doing?” China Daily, May 26, 2009. (www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2009-05/26/content_7944466.
htm)
26 “Plastic Bag Ban Implemented As Gov’t Launches Reusable Bag Initiative,” Business Focus Antigua. Sept 22, 2016. http://businessfocusantigua.
com/13042/
27 “Mixed http://jamaica-gleaner.com/sites/default/files/styles/jg_article_image/public/media/article_images/2017/03/14/OmniIndustriesJ20170313IA.

jpg?itok=tYH2id2m on plastic bag ban,” Antigua Observer, November 9, 2017. (https://antiguaobserver.com/mixed-results-on-plastic-bag-ban/)
28 The legislation covered bags up to a size of 0.3mm in 2007, and 0.6mm in 2011.
29 “Kenya Manufacturers Decry Ban on Plastic Bags,” The East African. March 15, 2017. (www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/Kenya-manufacturers-decry-
ban-on-plastic-bags/2558-3851186-pst56y/index.html)

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2.1 Benefits and challenges: bans and fees

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BENEFITS CHALLENGES

> Reduce use of bags with po-
tential to completely eliminate

> Reduce litter

> Promote and create market
for alternatives

> Engender strong opposition
from key stakeholders

> Increase cost to retailers re-
sulting from more expensive

cost to consumers.

> Can foster the emergence of
black markets.

> Reduce use

> Shape consumer behavior

> Reduce litter and waste

> Could provide revenue to
fund environmental projects
(albeit a temporary gain if fees

decline if less bags are being
purchased).

> -
ance with reporting require-
ments, especially with smaller
retailers.

>
if applied indirectly on the
consume

B
A

N
FE

ES


2.2 Benefits and challenges: bans and
fees

For both bans and fees to be effective, certain condi-
tions and strategies are essential in implementation.
These include: education, existence and availability of
alternatives, and penalties. These are discussed below.


• Education
Education is critical to addressing the issues asso-
ciated with plastic bag use. Members of the pub-
lic need to be made aware of the negative impacts
of plastic bag usage and waste. Such awareness
will help to shape the attitudes of the public to be-
come more supportive of environmental and
waste management policies such as bans or fees.


• Alternatives
Restrictions on plastic bag use require the wide-
spread availability and promotion of more sus-
tainable alternatives to facilitate an effective tran-
sition away from plastic bag use. Cost-effective
alternatives are necessary to ensure compliance
amongst retailers, especially in the case of a ban.


• Penalties
Robust penalties and the enforcement of such pen-
alties are important to ensure that all actors con-
form to the requirements of the existing framework
(ban or fee). Where bag fees are implemented, fee
revisions are necessary to ensure effectiveness. It
is important that fees increase periodically so as
to maintain the incentive and ensure the bag fee
continues to be high enough to act as a deterrent.

2.3 Other measures

Recycling single-use plastic bags is rarely pursued
as a solution as it is not cost-effective. Most recy-
cling facilities are set up to handle predominately
hard materials that are easier to separate mechan-
ically, for example aluminum cans, glass bottles,
plastic containers and lids, metal cans and card-
board/paper. Used plastic bags can be recycled
into new materials, but they require a different col-
lection and processing system from that which
curbside recycling programmes typically provide.

When recycled the bags often get stuck in
recycling machinery, adding to mainte-
nance costs.

San Jose, California estimated an annu-
al loss of US$1 million per year due to plas-
tic bag-related repairs in recycling facilities.

The introduction of alternative materials to be used
as bags often emanates from a ban or charge on sin-
gle-use plastic bags. Reusable bags that are offered as
an alternative to single-use plastic bags are made from
a variety of materials including canvas, natural fibers
such as jute, woven synthetic fibers, or a thick plas-
tic that is more durable than disposable plastic bags.
Several studies, taking into consideration the entire
life cycle, have concluded that non-woven plastic re-
usable bags made of propylene have the least impact
on the environment, require very few resources, are
low cost and have high reuse rates. 32 Other alterna-
tive materials used are paper bags and biodegradable
bags. The latter has been attracting a lot of attention
all around the world as an alternative to single-use
plastic bags, and is discussed in more detail below.

31 “The Problem with Plastic Bags,” Californians Against Waste (CAW), 2015. (www.cawrecycles.org/the-problem-of-plastic-bags/)
32 “The Most Environmentally Friendly Bag,” 1 Bag at a Time, 2017. https://1bagatatime.com/learn/environmentally-friendly-bag-recycled-content/

MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE - PLASTIC BAGS |14


Plastics are considered to be biodegradable if they-
can be broken down by micro-organisms available
in the environment, such as bacteria and fungi, and
converted into natural substances such as water and
carbon dioxide.33 Some biodegradable plastics can
take as little as three months to decompose fully,
whilst others can take up to several years. 34 The rate
of biodegradation depends on surrounding environ-
mental conditions – higher rates of degradation are
achieved at constant high temperatures and humid-
ity in industrial composting facilities. Biodegrad-
able bags are not suitable for home composting and
do not decompose in reasonable time when littered.
The several variations of biodegradable plas-
tic bags fall into two basic categories:35

i. Bio-based
These are derived from renewable materials like plant
biomass such as corn starch. Companies like Na-
tureWorks and EverCorn have been producing bio-
degradable plastic bags from corn for several years.
Bio-based biodegradable bags are considered suit-
able for recycling and energy recovery. Notably, some
bio-based plastics are not biodegradable and instead
exhibit properties more usually associated with con-
ventional plastics. This is because the property of
biodegradation depends on the chemical structure
of the plastic, rather than source of the material. 36

ii. Petroleum-based with biodegrad-
able additives
These are conventional plastic bags with artificial
additives which enhance or speed up biodegra-
dation. An example of this is the oxo-biodegrad-
able plastic bags (mentioned in Box 3.1,) which

require exposure to oxygen and light to degrade,
and are therefore unlikely to degrade in a landfill
with anaerobic conditions, as is the case in Jamaica.

Controversy over use

Despite their ostensive promise as a solution to the
plastic bag problem, biodegradable bags are not con-
sidered a suitable alternative to conventional plastic
bags. The label “biodegradable” when applied to a
plastic bag is often misunderstood as the bag decaying
within a short period of time under natural conditions.
This is a misconception that could cause consumers to
be careless in the disposal of these bags. Biodegrad-
able bags are lightweight, like their traditional coun-
terparts, and are thus prone to being blown about
and contributing to litter. The problems associated
with litter such as blocked drains and contamination
of waterways and marine animals, may thus persist.

Several countries and regions including the Euro-
pean Union (EU) do not regard oxo-biodegradable
bags as a potential solution to the plastic bag waste
problem. The contention is that oxo-biodegradable
plastics are still conventional plastics with additives
which merely fragment into small pieces that remain
in and potentially harm the environment. 37 The EU
is currently undertaking an assessment on the impact
of these bags on the environment and will propose
measures to limit their consumption as appropriate.
France in 2015 prohibited the sale and use of pack-
aging of this nature, while Spain recently announced
plans to ban the sale of these bags from 2018 on-
wards. Debate and research is ongoing on the time
that it takes oxo-biodegradable plastic material to
be reduced to a form where it possibly biodegrades.

33 Conventional plastics, rather than being converted into natural substances like biodegradable plastics, break down into tiny plastic debris or micro-
plastics.
34 “How Long Do Biodegradable Bags Take to Decompose,”  Science Focus, 2016. (www.sciencefocus.com/qa/how-long-do-biodegradable-bags-take-
decompose)
35 “Biodegradable Plastics,” Plastics Europe 2017. (www.plasticseurope.org/what-is-plastic/types-of-plastics-11148/biodegradable-plastics.aspx)
36 Gilbert and Ricci (2015).
37 “Oxo-Degradable Plastics,” European Bioplastics, n.d. (www.european-bioplastics.org/bioplastics/standards/oxo-degradables/)

15| MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE - PLASTIC BAGS

3 - A closer look at biodegradable bags


MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE - PLASTIC BAGS |16

3.1 Benefits and challenges: biodegradable bags

BENEFITS CHALLENGES

> Problem of litter and many
of the associated issues (of
conventional bags) remain.

> Biodegradable labelling on
bags may worsen the problem
of littering as persons may be-
lieve it is more acceptable to
discard them carelessly versus
traditional plastic bags.

> Disposable lifestyle respon-
sible for much of the problems
associated with traditional
plastic bag use continues to be
promoted.

> Growth of crops to manu-
facture bio-based biodegrad-
able bags can be viewed as
creating competition for land
on which to grow food.


3.6 Summary and Implications for
Jamaica

Chapter Summary

Various stakeholders in Jamaica are undertaking sev-
eral initiatives, from educational campaigns to the
production of alternatives, to reduce usage of sin-
gle-use plastic bags. However, these efforts need to
be harmonized so as to optimize and sustain results.

There is a need for a national policy
or framework to co-ordinate activities
among stakeholders to reduce or elim-
inate the use single-use plastic bags.

Internationally, governments are either banning the
use of traditional plastic bags or imposing charges on
their use. Both bans and fees have been shown to be
effective in achieving significant reduction in plas-
tic bag usage, but results vary according to jurisdic-
tion, enforcement, resources available to maintain
bans or fees, and public awareness and buy-in. Levy-
ing fees on single-use plastic bags is a market-based
approach to incentivize customers to alter their
own behaviour – the direct effect on the customer
promotes greater effectiveness than indirect appli-
cation. On the other hand, outright bans are effec-
tive through removal of the choice to use the bags.
Meanwhile, biodegradable bags (as an alternative
to conventional bags) do not eliminate many of the
problems associated with the use of traditional plas-
tic bags and do not provide a sustainable solution.

Implications for Jamaica

Around the world, both bans and fees have re-
duced but not eliminated the use of single-use
plastic bags. In territories where a ban has been
implemented, strong opposition, lack of cheap-
er alternatives, and inadequate enforcement are
common features thwarting its effectiveness.

It is unlikely, however, that the National Environ-
ment and Planning Agency (NEPA), Jamaica’s en-
vironmental enforcement agency, would have ade-
quate resources to effectively enforce a ban. A 2016
Auditor General’s report revealed that despite an
increase in enforcement activities in recent years,
NEPA’s monitoring activities are limited and are
not being carried out in a timely manner. NEPA
in response claimed that human resource con-
straints have restricted its monitoring activities. 38

In addition to extant weaknesses in enforcement ca-
pacity, for those vendors and small businesses that
use plastic bags to run cost-effective businesses. The
absence of cost-effective alternatives in Jamaica could
significantly increase business costs and reduce prof-
its, thereby creating an incentive for a black market for
plastic bags to emerge. Moreover, in Jamaica, a strong
democratic society where freedom of choice is highly
valued, preserving the element of free choice, or the
appearance of free choice, should inform policy. In this
regard, fees would incentivize behavioural change to-
wards less use of plastic bags, which favours sustained
results and therefore, should be introduced in Jamaica.

38 “Follow-Up Performance Audit Report: National Environment & Planning Agency,” Auditor General’s Department. September 2016. (http://nepa.
gov.jm/new/services_products/publications/reports/docs/agd/agd_audit_2016.pdf)

17| MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE - PLASTIC BAGS


1. Pass a law requiring retailers to charge for
single-use plastic carrier bags

GoJ should legislate that large retailers charge a stan-
dard fee for single-use plastic carrier bags below
the size of 24” by 36”. 39 This excludes bags used in
the retail trade for packaging that comes into direct
contact with food, such as bread, meat and produce.
Large businesses (not just supermarkets) who distrib-
ute plastic bags to customers should be required to
charge for bags at the point of sale.40 Large businesses
are targeted as they are responsible for the distribu-
tion of the majority of single-use plastic bags in Ja-
maica and are usually easier to monitor than smaller
businesses. Smaller retailers would not be subject to
reporting requirements, but would be encouraged
to charge on a voluntary basis, on that assumption
that removing reporting requirements (as well as
the potential of the charge to add revenue) is like-
ly to incentivize their participation in the scheme.

From examination of the value of bag fees in several
countries, initial bag fees were found to range from
J$8 to J$35. It is recommended that the value of the
initial bag fee implemented in Jamaica fall within this
range, towards the lower end, at least at the outset.

2. Require large retailers to report on pro-
ceeds from the fee scheme

The charge is not a tax, as a tax will require a
more complex system with more rigorous re-
porting requirements and therefore could reduce
compliance. Since the fee is not a tax the funds
obtained will not go to government, but the gov-
ernment should encourage retailers to use the pro-
ceeds to support environmental or related causes.

Retailers should be required to report annually on the
number of bags sold by giving an account of its open-
ing stock of bags and closing stock. They should also
be encouraged, but not necessarily required, to give
an account of how the bag sales’ proceeds are used.

Based on the aforementioned, the enforcement en-
tity should regularly publish a publicly available re-
port detailing the level of the fee in that year (and
the previous five years, once the system has been in
place that long), and the number of bags in circu-
lation under the fee system (also for the five previ-
ous years). The enforcement entity should also pe-
riodically conduct, in consultation with experts and
stakeholder groups, an assessment of the fee level in
terms of its efficacy as a deterrent to plastic bag use.

3. Revise usage reduction targets and
fees regularly

Using data acquired from the retailers’ reports, the en-
forcement entity (or other relevant entity) should de-
termine the impact of the scheme. Results of the analy-
sis should then be used to determine targets and revise
fees to facilitate the continued decline in plastic bag use.

4. Consult and collaborate with stakeholders
and raise public awareness

Stakeholder consultation and public awareness
campaigns are important for the successful imple-
mentation of the scheme. Suppliers, retailers and
consumers ought to be consulted prior to implemen-
tation and allowed sufficient time to adjust and put
in place the necessary systems needed to facilitate
operation of the scheme. Government should col-
laborate with retailers to promote and make more
sustainable alternatives like reusable bags available.

39 Small garbage bag size as defined by major local plastic bag and packaging suppliers Flexpak and Agri & Industrial Packaging Limited.
40 Definition according to Jamaica Ministry of Industry, Investment and Commerce (MIIC) – over fifty employees or generates annual sales of J$150
million or above. This is the size of the company that runs the entire business, not just the size of an individual branch.

MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE - PLASTIC BAGS |18

4 - Recommendations for managing single use plastic bags


5. Implement bag fees within three months
of the law being passed

With most large retailers already keeping inven-
tory of their stock of goods (including plastic
bags), preparation for the scheme will mostly en-
tail public awareness campaigns to sensitize con-
sumers. A period of three months is deemed suf-
ficient for retailers to inform their customers of
the impending introduction of the new charge.

6. Launch a national clean-up day

A nationwide clean-up day should be launched pri-
or to the implementation of the scheme. This not
only brings increased awareness to the issue, but
also encourages the public to participate in the pro-
motion of a clean and healthy environment. In ad-
dition, the clean-up will remove some of the plas-
tic bags which already exist in the environment.

\

19| MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE - PLASTIC BAGS


MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE - PLASTIC BAGS |20


Business Focus Antigua and Barbuda, 2016. Plastic Bag Ban Implemented As Gov’t Launches Reusable Bag
Initiative.
http://businessfocusantigua.com/13042/

Californians Against Waste, CAW, 2015. The Problem with Plastic Bags.
www.cawrecycles.org/the-problem-of-plastic-bags/

China Daily, 2009. One year after plastic bag ban, how is China doing?.
www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2009-05/26/content_7944466.htm

Cyan Caribbean, 2017. Retailers on Caribbean island of Barbados introduce a voluntary plastic bag charge.
www.cyancaribbean.com/single-post/2017/05/28/Retailers-on-Caribbean-island-of-Barbados-introduce-a-vol-
untary-plastic-bag-charge

Department, A. G., 2016. Auditor General’s Department Follow-up Audit Report - National Environmental
and Planning Agency.
http://nepa.gov.jm/new/services_products/publications/reports/docs/agd/agd_audit_2016.pdf

European Bioplastics, 2017. Oxo-degradable Plastics Increasingly Under Fire in Europe.
http://green-plastics.net/posts/85/the-difference-between-degradable-biodegradable-and-compostable/

FurturEnergia, n.d. Biodegradable plastics: are they better for the environment?.
www.futurenergia.org/ww/en/pub/futurenergia/chats/bio_plastics.htm

Gilbert, J. & Ricci, M., 2015. Biodegradable Plastics - An Overview of the Compostability of Biodegradable
Plastics and its Implications for the Collection and Treatment of Organic Wastes, s.l.: International Solid Waste
Asociation, ISWA.

21| MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE - PLASTIC BAGS

REFERENCES


Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), 2010. Regional Evaluation on Urban Solid Waste management in
Latin America and the Caribbean, s.l.: s.n.

Jamaica Gleaner, 2015. Island Grill Goes Green.
http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/food/20150528/island-grill-goes-green

Jamaica Observer, 2016. Sugar Company, Fisheries Division hardest hit by flooding on Marcus Garvey Drive.
www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Sugar-Company--Fisheries-Division-hardest-hit-by-flooding-on-Mar-
cus_73788

Jamaica Observer, 2017. Flexpak Goes Green With Bio-degradable Solutions.
www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Flexpak-goes-green-with-bio-degradable-solutions

Jamaica Observer, Nov 30, 2017. $1-B damage.
www.jamaicaobserver.com/observer-west-front-page/-1-b-damage_118571?profile=1373

National Solid Waste Management Authority, NSWMA, 2015. Waste Characterization Studies.
www.nswma.gov.jm/resources/NSWMA%20-%20Waste%20Characterization%20Studies%20-%202015.pdf

Oxo Biodegradable Plastics Association, n.d. Position Paper on Landfill.
www.biodeg.org/LANDFILL%2012.3.13.pdf

Oxo-biodegradable Plastics Association, n.d. Oxo-biodegradable Plastic.
www.biodeg.org/Oxo%20plastic%20-%2025-6-14.pdf

Reuters, 2017. Kenya Imposes World’s Toughest Law Against Plastic Bags.
www.reuters.com/article/us-kenya-plastic/kenya-imposes-worlds-toughest-law-against-plastic-bags-
idUSKCN1B80NW

RJR News Online, 2016. NSWMA still faced with garbage truck shortage.
http://rjrnewsonline.com/local/nswma-still-faced-with-garbage-truck-shortage

Science Focus, 2012. How long do biodegradable bags take to decompose?.
www.sciencefocus.com/qa/how-long-do-biodegradable-bags-take-decompose

The East African, 2017. Kenya Manufacturers Decry Ban on Plastic Bags.
www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/Kenya-manufacturers-decry-ban-on-plastic-bags/2558-3851186-pst56y/index.html

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2016. Marine plastic debris and microplastics – Global lessons
and research to inspire action and guide policy change.
wedocs.unep.org/rest/bitstreams/11700/retrieve

MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE - PLASTIC BAGS |22


Inter-American Development Bank, IDB, 2016. Solid Waste Management in the Caribbean: Proceedings from
the Caribbean Solid Waste Conference.
https://publications.iadb.org/bitstream/handle/11319/7650/Solid-Waste-Management-in-the-Caribbean-Pro-
ceedings-from-the-Caribbean-Solid-Waste-Conference.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Jamaica Gleaner, August 17, 2017. Local Players Ready But Import Threat Looms Large.
http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/lead-stories/20170817/local-players-ready-import-threat-looms-large

Jamaica Observer, 2017. NSWMA gets 11 more garbage trucks.
www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/NSWMA_gets_11_more_garbage_trucks?profile=0

Maarten Dubois, Johan Eyckmans, 2014. Chapter 35: Economic Instruments. In: M. R. Ernst Worrell, ed. Hand-
book of Recycling: State-of-the-art for Practitioners, Analysts, and Scientists. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Inc, pp. 511
-518.

National Solid Waste Management Authority, NSWMA, 2017. The Compactor.
www.nswma.gov.jm/resources/compact_2017.pdf

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 2009. Plastics recycling: challenges and
opportunities.
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873020/

Planning Institute of Jamaica, PIOJ, 2007. Management of Harzadous & Solid Wastes in Jamaica.
www.pioj.gov.jm/Portals/0/Sustainable_Development/Management_of_Wastes.pdf
[Accessed 20 May 2017].

23| MANAGING PLASTIC WASTE - PLASTIC BAGS

ADDITIONAL READING


Plastic Oceans, 2017. The Facts.
www.plasticoceans.org/the-facts/
[Accessed 10 July 2017].

The Trinidad and Tobago Solid Waste Management Company Limited, 2001. A Short-Term Strategy For The
Management of Plastic Packaging Material in Jamaica: Development of a Policy Framework for the Manage-
ment of Plastic Packaging Material and Harzardous Waste for Jamaica, Port of Spain, Trinidad, W.I.: s.n.

United States Environmental Protection Agency, EPA, 2017. Sustainable Materials Management: Non-Hazard-
ous Materials and Waste Management Hierarchy.
www.epa.gov/smm/sustainable-materials-management-non-hazardous-materials-and-waste-management-hier-
archy
[Accessed 05 August 2017].


CARIBBEAN
POLICY
RESEARCH
INSTITUTE


KILOGRAMS

(Millions)


12


10


2011 2012

YEAR

= Bottles

m= Lids and caps

m Other articles for the conveyance or packing of goods
@ Other boxes, cases, crates & similar articles

a Other floor coverings of vinyl chloride


2013 2014 2015

m@ Sacks and bags of other plastics

m Other articles of plastic and articles of other materials
m= Cups, forks, knives, plates, spoons and tumblers

@ Other plastic household & toilet articles of plastic

@ Other carboys, bottles, flasks & similar articles


cS

GUKORESHA VUTILISATION
AMASHASHI DES SACHETS
YA PULASTIKI EN PLASIQUE
ATABORA EST PROHIBEE

NTIBYEMEWE