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Republic of Ethiopia (2004) EPA Technical guidelines on household waste management.pdf
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Republic of Ethiopia (2004) EPA Technical guidelines on household waste management


The Federal Environmental Protection Authority

Technical Guidelines On Households Waste

Management

NOT FOR CITATION

This guidelines is still under development and shall be binding
after consensus is reached between the Environmental
Protection Authority and the Environmental Units of
Competent Sectoral Agencies

2004

Addis Ababa


Ethiopia

SOLID WASTE GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 2


Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................1

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF HOUSEHOLD WASTE.................................................2

WASTE AVOIDANCE AND MINIMIZATION........................................................................2

SEGREGATION AT SOURCE...................................................................................................3

COLLECTION AND TRANSPORT...........................................................................................3

DISPOSAL OPERATIONS..........................................................................................................4

HOUSEHOLD WASTE MANAGEMENT OPTION................................................................8

Conclusions......................................................................................................................................8


SOLID WASTE GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 i


Introduction

Guidelines are preferably set based on country specific baseline information. However, under the

prevailing Ethiopian conditions, the necessary information required for the preparation of the

guidelines is inadequate, outdated and scanty. An alternative approach is to adopt or adapt the

guidelines of international organizations. Accordingly, it has become imperative to adopt and use

the House Hold Waste Management of the United Nation Environment Program.

Therefore, the UNEP guidelines on Household Waste Management is adopted and introduced

throughout the country. The guideline will be amended as more information on the state of

household waste is obtained.

1. Household wastes are not normally regarded as hazardous, since they consist almost entirely

of materials, which have been handled by individuals before being discarded. However, such

wastes can be extremely variable in their composition, depending to a large extent on the

lifestyle of the generator. For example, it can be expected that in the countries where almost

everything bought is associated with wrapping materials, the packaging waste very often

comprises a significant part of household waste. There will also be foodstuffs adhering to it

or unusable material derived from foods preparation, such as vegetable peelings, meat

scrapes and bones, which make it unattractive for recycling. Also present in waste collected

from households are such items as batteries and other electrical components, some of which

may contain mercury, containers in which are present residues of oils, paints, pool chemicals,

caustic materials, sterilizing agents, bleaches, medicines, etc. Although these constitute a

small portion of wastes collected from households, they are particularly problematic due to

their hazardous characteristic, variability in chemistry and associated high recovery costs.

There may be in addition, aerosol canisters, caustic materials, sterilizing agents, bleaches,

medicines, disposable baby’s nappies or diapers, animal faeces and its associated litter along

with discarded foodstuffs which rapidly degrade and become offensive by virtue of their

smell. Such wastes are attractive to vermin, flies and scavenging animals and birds.

SOLID WASTE GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 1


For all these reasons there is a need to control and give special consideration to

household wastes and carry out practices, which demonstrate environmentally sound

management. Such wastes could also be generated in offices, commercial establishments,

hotels, etc.

SOLID WASTE GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 2


Environmental Impacts of Household Waste

2. Inadequate collection, transport or improper disposal of household waste can

have adverse environmental impacts, such as:

- Air pollution and unpleasant odors;

- Potential health hazards from accumulation of polluted water, which

provide breeding grounds for mosquitoes and attract flies, vermin. Also,

injuries from infected sharps;

- Loss of productive land due to the presence of non-biodegradable items;

1 - Contamination of soil, ground and surface waters by leachate with

resultant environmental effects or health hazards;

Waste Avoidance and Minimization
2

3. One of the leading principles of waste management is the source reduction principle,

by which the generation of waste should be reduced to a minimum in terms of

quantity and/or hazard potential. Therefore, the problems associated with waste

disposal would not be so significant if materials did not need to be discarded as

waste in the first place. The marketing of goods in reusable containers, which could

be returned to the supplier and be reused, is one example. Waste generation could

sometimes be reduced if commodities were available in bulk quantity to a retailer

who would sell the goods in smaller quantities, thereby eliminating the need for as

much packing. Packaging of goods for aesthetic reasons could be discouraged, as

could the supply of a small item in a large package for marketing reasons. Of course

packaging often serves important functions such as controlling spoilage and

otherwise facilitating the distribution and marketing of goods.

SOLID WASTE GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 3


SEGREGATION AT SOURCE

4. It is essential to segregate the domestic waste into various components such as

combustibles material, reusable material, recyclable material, organics, etc. at

household level. Combustible material includes paper, cardboard, dry leaves and

twigs. Reusable material could be bottles, cans and plastic bags. Recyclable material

could be paper, plastics, glass and metal scraps. Organic material includes vegetable

and fruit peelings and other food wastes.

5. To promote recovery operations, and to prevent household waste causing pollution or

damage to human health, it is most important to segregate recoverable and hazardous

waste, if present, already at the source of generation. Segregation can also occur

downstream. In developed countries, with possibilities to introduce separate

collection schemes, this is a major challenge in relation to the proper management of

household waste. In developing countries, it is more common practice to separate and

reuse all valuables from household waste.

COLLECTION AND TRANSPORT

6. Households usually keep waste to be discarded in designated containers. These

may be metal or plastic dust-bins or plastic and paper bags. In large buildings and

apartment blocks, centralized containers are sometimes provided into which

occupants place their waste.

7. In cities and urban areas, waste is collected for disposal in specially designated

vehicles fitted with compaction equipment to increase the payload, which can be

transported, often over significant distances to sanitary landfill site.

Recovery Operations

8. The next important principle in respect of waste avoidance and minimization is

recovery of recyclable components to the greatest possible extent.

9. In some developing countries, components of waste streams are usually segregated and

SOLID WASTE GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 4


used. Combustibles may be used as fuel either as such, or after densification. Paper

may be used in small-scale paper/cardboard making and plastic wastes can also be

reused in applications not requiring high quality and clean material.

10. The segregation, recycling and reuse of domestic waste is important. Segregation,

recycling and reuse of household waste can have a major impact on the economies of

some developing countries. People involved in waste segregation can be brought into

the formal sector and remunerated for their work. Valuable items, ‘pickings’ can be

sold through intermediaries to small recycling entrepreneurs. The entire recycling

activity, including transportation, generates employment. The economic status of all

those employed in recycling is improved.

11. It is possible to produce compost from the putrescible fraction of household waste.

The waste is piled in a heap formed in rows and the waste is turned over or

windrowed at regular intervals. Also, it is possible to put the sorted waste into a

horizontal perforated drum, resembling a rotary kiln, which has been fitted with flight

tubes and rotate the drum very slowly such that the passage of the waste to the other

end of the drum takes several days. Both these processes rely on aerobic

biodegradation taking place to produce a product resembling compost. The presence

of contaminants both organic and inorganic in compost mainly if it originates from

unsegregated materials can make the compost unusable. Threshold values of

concentrations of such contaminants must be assessed.

DISPOSAL OPERATIONS

12. Historically, household waste has been disposed of by open dump. As communities

became larger and more premises were built, usually at a higher density, particularly

in urban areas, the area needed for the disposal of waste increased. Also, as society

has developed, there have been significant changes in the composition of wastes

collected from households, particularly with a change in the fuel used for heating

purposes. This led to designated areas of land being set aside which became the local

waste disposal site. In addition to decomposition, predators and fires on such sites

reduced the volume of waste considerably. Nowadays, because of ever increasing

volume of waste requiring disposal and an increasing need to protect the

SOLID WASTE GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 5


environment, sophisticated means of collection, transport, treatment and disposal

need to be used. At the landfill site, the waste is deposited in layers in prepared cells

and compacted to decrease its volume. It is then covered, at least daily, with a suitable

soil-like material to deter vermin, flies, birds and other scavengers but also to prevent

injuries from sharps.

13. Some biodegradation of the putrescible fraction in the household waste will have

commenced before it was collected and will continue during its transportation. Its

further processing by, for example, wet pulverization also will promote enhanced

degradation. Some countries prohibit the addition of liquids to landfills for the

purpose of accelerating degradation, being more concerned with the increased

production of leachate resulting from such practices. Once in a landfill site the rate of

degradation will increase rapidly, particularly in the presence of moisture. However,

if the density of the waste is increased significantly to assist its handling and

transportation, the ease with which moisture can gain access to the waste mass is

decreased, which can result in a delay in the onset of degradation. Initially, the

degradation is aerobic producing hydrogen and carbon dioxide as the principal by-

products. As the oxygen in the mass of waste is used up, anaerobic conditions become

established and the principal by-products are methane and carbon dioxide. Since

methane is a highly flammable gas and in confined spaces can be explosive, special

measures are needed to vent it from the landfill. At sites where the quantity of landfill

gas produced is significant, harnessing it for use as a fuel is practised. It is possible to

obtain usable gas quantities for several tens of years.

14. At the same time as landfill gas is produced, other organic compounds are formed.

Many of these are soluble in water and become dissolved in any surplus moisture in

the landfill site to produce a liquid mixture termed leachate. Leachate can be highly

polluting. Some countries strike a balance between high volumes of gas production

and low pollution potential of leachate and the reverse to control the pollution by

leachate. In any case it is necessary to prevent leachate migration away from a landfill

site since it can continue to produce landfill gas away from a landfill site. Also, it is

SOLID WASTE GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 6


necessary to prevent it from contracting and mixing with ground and surface water.

15. To ensure that waste deposited in a landfill site is more rapidly degraded it can be

pulverized before landfilling. The process is usually carried out under wet conditions

to reduce dust and, since the waste needs to be wet to promote maximum production

of landfill gas, biodegradation occurs quickly after the waste has been landfilled.

16. In parallel with the land filling of household waste, since many of its constituents are

combustible, incineration is another option. Its attraction lies in the fact that large

land areas are not removed from use for other purposes for an indefinite period of

time, and surplus heat can be produced. Because household waste contains a large

variety of materials, including those which are not combustible, plant used to

incinerate such waste needs to be rugged and versatile to cope with a highly variable

feedstock both in terms of waste composition and calorific value.

17. Because the waste is not easy to feed to and through an incinerator it is usual practice

to use furnaces based on either the chain or rocking grate principle or to a lesser

extent a rotary kiln. To ensure high combustion efficiency the temperature range at

which the furnace is operated and burns waste and the time during which the waste

reaches and is maintained at furnace temperature and turbulence within the furnace

chamber, all need to be strictly controlled, the so-called “3Ts Principle” –

Temperature, Time and Turbulence exemplifies this requirement for good

combustion.

18. Waste delivered to an incinerator by a collection vehicle usually discharges its load

into a large hopper from where the waste can then be removed by grab crane or

bucket conveyer and fed to the incinerator furnace at a controlled rate. Ideally, the

furnace should be operated on a continuous basis, thus ensuring that waste is not left

in the hopper for an extended period of time. As indicated above, decomposition of

the waste can take place in the hopper, which rapidly produced hydrogen, methane

and carbon dioxide to give a gas concentration, which is hazardous. Also, it provides

SOLID WASTE GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 7


a suitable breeding ground for vermin and particularly flies, the eggs of which will in

all probability have been laid in the waste before it was collected from a household.


19. To meet increasingly more stringent limits on the concentration of gaseous and

particulate emissions released to atmosphere from an incinerator, it is necessary to

clean the off-gases before they are released into the atmosphere. At one time

electrostatic precipitators were considered to provide sufficient removal of particulate

matter in the gas stream. However, to deal with acidic constituents it is necessary to

now use equipment that controls acid gas, such as dry lime injection prior to passing

the gases through an electrostatic precipitator or wet (chemical) scrubbing. In

addition to such control equipment, the height of the chimney from which the gases

are released may need to be increased to aid their dispersion and ensure that ground

level concentrations of constituents in the gases are environmentally acceptable

20. An incinerator, which is operated efficiently, should produce a furnace ash (bottom

ash), which contains only inorganic materials. However, in practice, it can be

expected that also some organic carbonaceous material will be present at trace

concentrations. Normally, the ash is landfilled at a site from which releases of

leachate to ground and surface water are prevented. This is required because any

water-soluble materials in the ash can be dissolved in leachate and could result in

concentrations of pollutants in ground and surface water.

21. In addition to solid wastes, household liquid waste is an environmental problem.

Liquid waste disposed to sewer drains into surface water courses. This causes

pollution of the aquatic environment with resulting health hazards. Therefore

municipal wastewater must be collected and properly treated before discharging to

surface water courses.

Household Waste Management Option

22. It is possible to segregate waste, either with the co-operation of the waste generator or

after collection. Wastes which are not suitable for recovery and hence segregation

SOLID WASTE GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 8


will need to be collected and disposed of in approved facilities.

23. The biodegradable fraction contained in wastes collected from households may,

depending on its storage conditions, decompose in its storage container or collection

receptacle. For health, hygiene and aesthetic reasons there has been a move towards

the use of plastic or paper sacks in which the waste is kept to await its collection. At

the same time this means of waste storage is advantageous to those employed in

collecting the waste since then they no longer have direct contact with it. Further, its

subsequent handling, be it at a transfer station, incineration plant or landfill site, will

be easier and more hygienic.

24. In respect of transfer stations, used principally for bulking and packaging wastes for

onward road or rail transport to a disposal facility, in most climates the waste will be

degrading to an extent which will require it to be handled by mechanical means for

health and safety reasons. Likewise, there should be no direct physical contact with

the waste by plant operators at its final destination.

Conclusions

25. Wastes collected from households consist almost entirely of materials which have

been handled by individuals before being discarded, and would not normally be

regarded as possessing hazard properties. However care needs to be exercised over

such materials soon after they are discarded, and are regarded then as wastes, since

hazardous materials may be present in small quantities.

26. The presence of biodegradable constituents in household waste demands care in their

recovery treatment and disposal. Until the pathogens present in the waste have been

either destroyed or die, there is always the possibility of the waste presenting a threat

to human health (toxicity) and the environment (ecotoxicity) by virtue of their

presence.

27. With respect to management of household waste practices may vary place to place.

Care should be taken to ensure compliance with domestic requirements.

SOLID WASTE GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 9


28. Problems associated with recovery, treatment and disposal of household waste,

include:

- Lack of available sites for sanitary landfill;

- Inadequate data on type and quantity of waste generated;

- Separate collection and treatment of liquid waste is expensive, and when

disposed of to sewer without treatment can cause harm to the

environment;

- Resides remaining after the treatment of municipal wastes require disposal with particular

care.

SOLID WASTE GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 10


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