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Republic of Ethiopia (2000) Environmental impact assessment guidelines document.pdf
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FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
GUIDELINE DOCUMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
ADDIS ABABA
MAY 2000
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AUTHORITY
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AUTHORITY
FINAL DRAFT
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
GUIDELINE DOCUMENT
ADDIS ABABA
JULY 2000
NOT FOR CITATION
This guidelines is still under development and shall be
binding after consensus is reached between the
Environmental Protection Authority and the
Environmental Units of Competent Sectoral Agencies
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT GUIDELINE DOCUMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF THIS DOCUMENT......................................1
CHAPTER 2 : ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIA...............3
2.1 Background........................................................................................................................ 3
2.2 Legislative and Policy context............................................................................................3
2.3 EIA Objectives and Principles............................................................................................6
2.4 The Competent Agency.....................................................................................................7
2.5 Scheduled activities...........................................................................................................8
CHAPTER 3 : THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS.............................11
3.1 Roles and Responsibilities...............................................................................................11
3.1.1 Proponent...........................................................................................................11
3.1.2 Consultant...........................................................................................................12
3.1.3 Interested and affected parties............................................................................12
3.1.4 Competent Agency..............................................................................................12
3.2 Pre-screening consultation...............................................................................................13
3.3 Screening......................................................................................................................... 13
3.4. Scoping............................................................................................................................ 14
3.5 Environmental Impact Assessment..................................................................................17
3.6 Record of decision and appeal.........................................................................................19
3.7 Conditions of approval.....................................................................................................20
3.8. Auditing................................................................................................................................ 21
CHAPTER 4 : STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES.........................................................................22
CHAPTER 5 : ISSUES FOR SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN
ETHIOPIA..................................................................................................................................... 24
5.1 Agriculture........................................................................................................................ 25
5.1.1 Background.........................................................................................................25
5.1.3. Recommendations for environmental management..............................................27
5.2 Industry............................................................................................................................ 28
5.2.1 Background.........................................................................................................28
5.2.2 Issues for environmental assessment.................................................................28
5.2.3 Recommendations for Environmental Management...........................................30
5.3 Transport.......................................................................................................................... 31
5.3.1 Background.........................................................................................................31
5.3.2 Issues for environmental assessment.................................................................31
5.3.3 Recommendations for environmental management............................................33
5.4 Mining.............................................................................................................................. 33
5.4.1 Background.........................................................................................................33
5.4.2. Issues for Environmental Management.................................................................34
5.4.3. Recommendations for environmental management..............................................35
5.5 Dams and Reservoirs......................................................................................................36
5.5.1. Background...........................................................................................................36
5.5.2 Issues for environmental assessment.................................................................37
5.5.3 Recommendations for environmental management............................................38
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5.6 Tannery............................................................................................................................ 38
5.6.1 Background.........................................................................................................38
5.6.2 Issues for Environmental Assessment................................................................39
5.6.3 Recommendations for Environmental Management...........................................40
5.7 Textiles............................................................................................................................ 41
5.7.1 Background.........................................................................................................41
5.7.2 Issues for Environmental Assessment................................................................41
5.7.3 Recommendations for Environmental Assessment.............................................42
5.8 Hydropower generation....................................................................................................42
5.8.1 Background.........................................................................................................42
5.8.2 Issues for environmental assessment.................................................................43
5.8.3. Recommendations for environmental management..............................................45
5.9 Irrigation projects.............................................................................................................45
5.9.1 Background.........................................................................................................45
5.9.2 Issues for environmental assessment.................................................................45
5.9.3. Recommendations for environmental management..............................................46
5.10 Resettlement Projects......................................................................................................47
5.10.1 Background.........................................................................................................47
5.10.2 Issues for environmental assessment.................................................................47
5.10.3 Recommendations for environmental management............................................49
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Schedule of activities
Appendix 2 Example of an application form
Appendix 3 Standards and guidelines for water and air of relevance in Ethiopia
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ACRONYMS:
ADLI Agricultural Development Led Industry
CEA Cumulative Effects Assessment
CSE Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (South Africa)
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EM Environmental Management
EMP Environmental Management Plan
EMS Environmental Management System
EPE Environmental Policy of Ethiopia
ERA Ecological Risk Assessment
GVP Gross Value of Production
IAPs Interested & Affected Parties
IEM Integrated Environmental Management
ISO International Standards Organisation
PPP Policies, plans and programmes
RECC Regional Environmental Co-ordinationCouncil
SABS South African Bureau of Standards
SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment
SOE State of the environment
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
WHO World Health Organisation
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TERMS USERD IN THE GUIDELINES:
Activity:
A development action, either planned or existing, that may result in environmental
impacts through pollution and/or resource use.
Affected environment
Those parts of the socio-economic and biophysical environment impacted on by the
development
Alternatives
Possible courses of action, in place of another, that would meet the same purpose and
need (of proposal). Alternatives can refer to any of the following but are not limited to:
alternative sites for development, alternative projects for a particular site, alternative site
layouts, alternative designs, alternative processes and materials. In EIA the so-called
“no action” alternative may also require investigation in certain circumstances.
Assessment
The process of collecting, organising, analysing, interpreting and communicating data
that are relevant to some decision.
Auditing
The process through which an EIA is inspected which then provides an opportunity and
mechanism to learn from experience and to refine project design and implementation
procedures.
Compliance
To act in accordance with the rules and regulations.
Development:
The act of altering or modifying resources in order to obtain potential benefits.
Environmental impact statement
A report describing the process of examining the environmental effects of a development
proposal, the expected impacts and the proposed mitigating measures.
Environmental aspect:
A human activity or environmental element
Environmental issue:
A concern felt by one of more parties about some existing, potential or perceived
environmental impact.
Environmental impact:
The degree of change in an environment resulting from the effect of an activity on the
environment, whether desirable or undesirable. Impacts may be the direct consequence
of an organisation’s activities or may be indirectly caused by them.
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Environmental impact assessment (EIA):
A process of examining the environmental consequences of development.
Evaluation
The process of weighing information, the act of making value judgements or ascribing
values to data in order to reach a decision.
Informed decision-making
Decision relating to the impacts on the environment based upon the best applicable
knowledge available. In cases where a lack of information is evident, steps will be taken
to collect information necessary to assess the impacts and sustainable use of resources.
Interested party
Individuals or groups concerned with or affected by an activity and its consequences.
These include the authorities, local communities, investors, work force, customers and
consumers, environmental interest groups and the general public.
Impact
The effect of an activity on the environment whether desirable or undesirable. Impacts
may be the direct consequence of an organisation’s activities or may be indirectly
caused by them.
Irreversible impact
When the character, diversity or reproductive capacity of an environment is permanently
lost.
Land use
The activities that take place within a given area or space.
Mitigation
Measures taken to prevent, reduce or rectify impacts of a particular project of the
evaluation process concludes that the impacts are significant.
Monitoring
The repetitive and continued observation, measurement and evaluation of environmental
data to follow changes over a period of time to assess the efficiency of control
measures.
Negative impact
A change that reduces the quality of the environment (for example, by reducing species
diversity and the reproductive capacity of the ecosystem, by damaging health, property
or by causing nuisance).
Participation
Interested and affected individuals and groups will have an opportunity to participate in
decisions about ways in which environmental concerns are addressed.
Positive impact
A change that improves the quality of the environment (for example, by increasing
species diversity and the reproductive capacity of the ecosystem, by removing
nuisances or improving amenities).
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Pristine
Undisturbed natural landscape.
Pro-active:
Taking action in anticipation of a problem rather than in reaction to the problem.
Rehabilitation
Restoration of landscape more or less to is former scenic appearance.
Scoping
Scoping involves the identification and “narrowing down” of potential environmental
impacts to ensure that the EIA focuses in key issues for decision-making.
Screening
The process whereby the responsible department(s) decides whether or not a project
requires assessment, and the level of assessment that may be required.
Scheduled activities
Development actions that are likely to result in significant environmental impacts.
Significant impact
An impact that, by its magnitude, duration or intensity alters an important aspect of the
environment.
Value judgement
A statement or opinion which is not capable of being falsified by comparison with fact.
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CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF THIS
DOCUMENT
This Guide to Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) document provides a
background to environmental impact assessment and environmental
management in Ethiopia. In essence the document aims at being a reference
material to ensure effective environmental assessment and management
practice in Ethiopia for all parties who engage in the process. In this regard the
document aims towards:
• Providing all interested parties with a consistent approach to EIA
(including:
project proponents, consultants, communities, NGO’s and the
authorities);
• Providing background information for the context of EIA in Ethiopia;
• Assisting proponents in identifying their EIA responsibilities;
• Assisting community and NGO groups in realising their environmental
rights with
regard to EIA;
• Assisting the authorities in determining their roles and responsibilities as
decision-makers in the EIA process; and
• Assisting in decision-making with regard to cost and benefits of
proposed
development projects.
The document details the required procedures for conducting an EIA in
Ethiopia and the requirements for environmental management. The document
has been developed to support the ongoing development of environmental
legislation. These requirements are presented on a step-by-step basis. In
addition, the document specifies tools that may be considered when engaging
in the EIA process. Reference is made to the legislation and policies that
potential investors and developers must comply in Ethiopia and key issues for
environmental assessment in specific development sectors are detailed for
consideration.
This document has been derived in parts from concepts provided in previous
documents prepared by the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA), in terms
of the Ethiopian Environmental Policy. The EPA have prepared six volumes of
Environmental Assessment Guideline documents which provide for EIA
procedure as well as for EIA in specific development sectors in the country
(including: agriculture, industry, transport, mining and dams and reservoirs).
These documents were revised following a workshop with stakeholders held in
March-April 1999.
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In order to meet these objectives the document has been structured into five
Chapters, as follows:
Chapter 1 describes the purpose and aims of the document
Chapter 2 provides a background to EIA in Ethiopia through describing the
need for an integrated process and the legislative requirements. This sections
includes an overview of the responsibilities of the Competent Agency and
identifies those projects that must be subjected to an EIA.
Chapter 3 describes the Ethiopian approach to EIA. It is a comprehensive
description of each of the phases within an EIA process and identifies the roles
and responsibilities of each party engaging in the EIA process.
Chapter 4 provides an overview of environmental standards that may be
applied in Ethiopia and details how these standards and guidelines may be
established.
Chapter 5 identifies the issues and impacts that may be associated with
development in some of the key sectors in Ethiopia
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CHAPTER 2 : ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND
MANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIA
2.1 Background
The environment has not featured on the development agenda in the past
since the project evaluation and decision-making mechanisms have focussed
on short-term technical feasibility and economic benefits. Past development
practices have not anticipated, eliminated or mitigated potential environmental
problems early in the planning process. This has resulted in a situation where
the country experiences a seriously degraded natural environment. Further
development has the potential to further damage fragile environmental
systems.
In order to ensure that future developments in Ethiopia are sustainable it is
essential to integrate environmental concerns into development activities.
Environmental assessment and management have been recognised as
effective tools for facilitating the inclusion of the principles of sustainable
development into development proposals.
2.2 Legislative and Policy context
The Constitution (adopted on the 21st of August 1995) requires current and
future legislation and the conduct of government to conform to a Bill of Rights.
The concept of sustainable development and environmental rights are
entrenched in the Rights of Peoples in Ethiopia through Articles 43 and 44
which state the following:
Article 43:- The Right to Development
1. The Peoples of Ethiopia as a whole, and each Nation, Nationality and
People in Ethiopia in particular have the right to improved living
standards and to sustainable development.
2. Nationals have the right to participate in national development and, in
particular, to be consulted with respect to policies and projects affecting
their community.
3. All international agreements and relations concluded, established or
conducted by the State shall protect and ensure Ethiopia’s right to
sustainable development.
4. The basic aim of development activities shall be to enhance the
capacity of citizens for development and to meet their basis needs.
Article 44:- Environment Rights
1. All persons have the right to live in a clean and healthy environment.
2. All persons who have been displaced or whose livelihoods have been
adversely affected as a result of State programmes have the right to
commensurate monetary or alternative means of compensation,
including relocation with adequate State assistance.
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The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) was established in response to
the requirements of the Constitution (Proclamation No 9/1995). The objective
of the EPA is to:
“...ensure that all matters pertaining to the country’s social and economic
development activities are carried out in a manner that will protect the welfare
of human beings as well as sustainably protect, develop and utilise the
resource bases on which they depend for survival” (Federal Negarit Gazeta of
the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia - Proclamation No 9/1995)
In addition to the EPA, the Investment Authority has responsibilities towards the
environment. These are captured in the Federal Negarit Gazeta - Proclamation
No 37/1996) which states that “...the intended investment activity would not be
convening the operational laws of the country and that, in particular, it complies
with conditions stipulated in environmental protection laws...”.
Section 2.4 provides a more detailed description of the roles and
responsibilities of the EPA as the Competent Agency.
As one of its first responsibilities, the EPA (in conjunction with the Ministry of
Economic Development and Cooperation) developed the Environmental Policy
of Ethiopia (EPE) which was adopted in April 1997. The EPE supports
Constitutional Rights through its guiding principles which are:
a. Every person has the right to live in a healthy environment;
b. Sustainable environmental conditions and economic production
systems are impossible in the absence of peace and personal security.
This shall be assured through the acquisition of power by communities
to make their own decisions on matters that affect their life and
environment;
c. The development, use and management of renewable resources shall
be based on sustainability;
d. The use of non-renewable resources shall be minimized and where
possible their availability extended (e.g. through recycling);
e. Appropriate and affordable technologies which use renewable and non-
renewable resources efficiently shall be adopted, adapted, developed
and disseminated;
f. When a compromise between short-term economic growth and long-
term environmental protection is necessary, then development activities
shall minimise degrading and polluting impacts on ecological and life
support systems. When working out a compromise, it is better to err on
the side of caution to the extent possible, as rehabilitating a degraded
environment is very expensive, and bringing back a species that has
gone extinct is impossible;
g. Full environmental and social costs (or benefits foregone or lost) that
may result through damage to resources or the environment as a result
of degradation or pollution shall be incorporated into public and private
sector planning and accounting, and decisions shall be based on
minimising and covering these costs;
h. Market failures with regard to the pricing of natural, human-made and
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cultural resources, and failures in regulatory measures shall be
corrected through the assessment and establishment of user fees,
taxes, tax reductions or incentives;
i. Conditions shall be created that will support community and individual
resources to sustainably manage their own environment and resources;
j. As key actors in natural resource use and management, women shall
be treated equally with men and empowered to be totally involved in
policy, programme and project design, decision-making and
implementation;
k. The existence of a system which ensures uninterrupted continuing
access to the same piece(s) of land and resource creates conducive
conditions for sustainable natural resource management;
l. Social equity shall be assured particularly in resource use;
m. Regular and accurate assessment and monitoring of environmental
conditions shall be undertaken and the information widely disseminated
within the population;
n. Increased awareness and understanding of environmental and resource
issues shall be promoted, by government officials and by the
population, and the adoption of a “conservation culture” in
environmental matters among all levels of society shall be encouraged;
o. Local, regional and international environmental interdependence shall
be recognised;
p. Natural resource and environmental management activities shall be
integrated laterally across all sectors and vertically among all levels of
organisation;
q. The wealth of crop and domestic animal as well as micro-organism and
wild plant and animal germplasm is an invaluable and inalienable asset
that shall be cared for;
r. Species and their variants have the right to continue existing, and are,
or may be, useful now and/or for generations to come; and
s. The integrated implementation of cross sectoral and sectoral federal,
regional and local policies shall be seen as a prerequisite to achieving
the objectives of this Policy on the Environment.
In addition to its Guiding Principles the EPE provides Sectoral Environmental
Policies and Cross-sectoral Environmental Policies. Environmental Impact
Assessment policies are included in the latter. The EIA policies are:
a. To ensure that EIA’s consider not only physical and biological impacts
but also address social, socio-economic, political and cultural
conditions;
b. To ensure that public and private sector development programmes and
projects recognise environmental impacts early and incorporate their
containment into the development design process;
c. To recognise that public consultation is an integral part of EIA and
ensure that EIA procedures make provision for both an independent
review and public comment before consideration by decision-makers;
d. To ensure that the environmental impact statement always includes
mitigation plans for environmental management problems and
contingency plans in case of accidents;
e. To ensure that, at specified intervals during project implementation,
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environmental audits regarding monitoring, inspection and record
keeping take place for activities where these have been required by the
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS);
f. To ensure that preliminary and full EIA’s are undertaken by the relevant
sectoral ministries or departments if in the public sector, and by the
developer, if in the private sector;
g. To create by law and EIA process which requires appropriate
environmental impact statements and environmental audits for private
and state development projects;
h. To establish the necessary institutional framework and determine the
linkages of its parts for undertaking, coordinating and approving EIA’s
and the subsequent system of environmental audits required to ensure
compliance with conditionalities;
i. To develop detailed sectoral technical guidelines in EIA’s and
environmental audits;
j. To ensure that social, socio-economic, political and cultural conditions
are considered in EIA procedures and included in sectoral guidelines;
and
k. To develop EIA and environmental audit capacity and capability in the
EPA, sectoral ministries and agencies as well as the regions.
EIA is not currently a legal requirement, however, the intent of these policies is
for their promulgation into legislation and in this regard a framework
environmental law is under preparation. The requirements of the EIA policy
have been considered in the following principles.
2.3 EIA Objectives and Principles
The primary purpose of conducting an EIA is to ensure that the environmental
effects of proposed activities are adequately and appropriately considered
before decisions are taken. This should serve as a key aid in the decision-
making process for relevant authorities by providing comprehensive information
on the environmental consequences of development. Evaluated information
and supporting arguments enable decision makers to evaluate the overall
impacts of a proposal and alternatives to that proposal.
There are a number of principles which underlie this objective, these include:
Early application - the EIA process should be applied as early as
possible in the proposed planning of investment as is practical. This
should ensure that environmental issues are considered pro-actively
before irrevocable decisions are taken. Practicality generally dictates
that the EIA process is applied during project conceptualisation.
Participation - this requires that all interested and affected parties
have the opportunity to participate meaningfully in the EIA process.
Issues based - EIA should focus on the resolution of issues which are
considered to be important to those participating in the process.
Alternatives - EIA should consider all feasible alternatives which may
include different methods of undertaking a development, alternative
sites, alternative sources of raw materials. The “no-go” option is
another feasible alternative.
Accountability - project proponents are accountable for the potential
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impacts of activities being undertaken as well as managing impacts.
Consultants are accountable for providing sufficient information to
enable decision-makers to take sound decisions. The Competent
Agency is accountable for the decisions that are taken.
The two key objectives of the Ethiopian EIA process are the:
Integration of environmental considerations in development planning
processes in order to make use of natural resources in a responsible
manner; and
Protection and enhancement of the quality of all life forms.
2.4 The Competent Agency
The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) is the Competent Agency at the
Federal level in Ethiopia. It is, therefore, the responsibility of this authority in
the EIA process to:
• ensure that the proponent complies with requirements of the EIA process;
• maintain co-operation and consultation between the different sectoral
agencies throughout the EIA process;
• maintain a close relationship with the proponent and to provide guidance
on the process; and
• evaluate and take decisions on the documents that arise from the EIA
process.
These factors will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.
At the regional level, the Federal EPA has devolved responsibility to the
Regional equivalent to the EPA. The regional authorities should ideally
establish an EPA-type institution to deal with environmental issues at the
regional level. This is, however, a long-term objective. In the interim period,
however, the Regional Environmental Co-ordination Committee (RECC), which
comprise responsible officers from different sectoral Bureaus must take the
responsibility at the Regional level. Seeing as that the RECC’s are not sectoral
based they can be viewed as being independent of the outcome of a specific
EIA. Due to competence and capacity limitations, the RECC may chose to
designate a specific sectoral Bureau to take responsibility for an EIA process.
The sectoral Bureau must not, however, have a vested interest in the outcome
of the EIA process. This is particularly important where a sectoral agency
houses the secretariat of the RECC. The Federal EPA should act in an
advisory capacity to the Regional EPA-type organisations.
It is the responsibility of the regional EPA bodies to inform the Federal EPA of
projects that may be of national significance. Therefore the Federal authority
should only be involved in EIA processes where a proposed activity may:
• have an environmental effect across the international boundaries of
Ethiopia;
• have an environmental effect across regional boundaries within
Ethiopia;
• have an effect on an environment of national or international
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significance, including but not limited to natural forests, wetlands,
national parks, cultural heritage sites etc.
• have a Federal government department, the relevant regional authority
or another statutory body as the proponent;
• have the Federal Investment Authority as the investment approval body.
Alternatively Federal EPA may have an EIA referred if agreed to between the
Federal authority and the regional authority. This would typically happen in
complicated EIA’s where the Regional authority feels that it does not have the
capacity or competency to deal with the application.
2.5 Scheduled activities
The Schedule of activities that may be required to undergo an EIA process as
detailed in Chapter 3 of this document is provided in Appendix 1. Note though
that decision-making within the EIA process occurs after specific phases,
therefore, not all of the Schedule 1 and 2 activities will be required to undertake
a full EIA as per the process detailed in Section 3. All projects must be
submitted to a Screening exercise. Those projects indicated in Schedule 1 are
the most likely to require a full EIA to evaluate their environmental
consequence.
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FIGURE 3.1. EIA APPLICATION PROCESS
9
AUDIT
EIA APPLICATION PROCESS
PROPOSAL TO UNDERTAKE ACTIVITY / INVESTMENT
REJECT
ACCEPT
ACCEPT
ACCEPT
ACCEPT
DECISION
APPROVED NOT APPROVED
CONDITIONS OF
APPROVAL
IMPLEMENTATION
APPEAL
DECISION
RECORD OF DECISION
REVIEW EIS
EIA
DECISION
SCOPING
REVIEW SCREENING REPORT
REVIEW SCOPING REPORT
AMEND
AMEND
AMEND
SCREENING
PRE-SCREENING CONSULTATION
LEGEND ACTIVITIES
REVIEWS
DECISIONS
SUBMIT APPLICATION TO ASSESSMENT AGENCIES
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
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FIGURE 3.2
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CHAPTER 3 : THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
ASSESSMENT PROCESS
The regulatory process for conducting an environmental impact assessment in
Ethiopia is shown in Figures 3.1 and 3.2. Please refer to this figure throughout
this Chapter and please note that the inclusion of activities prior to the “Pre-
screening consultation” is for the sake of completion in terms of the investment
process rather than for descriptive purposes in the following discussion. The
assessment agencies should on issuance of an Investment Permit indicate the
need for EIA to a potential investor and should not issue an Operation Permit
without an Environmental Clearance Certificate.
Please also consider that project descriptions and the evaluation of impacts
etc. must consider the full life-cycle of a project (including: construction,
operation and decommissioning).
3.1 Roles and Responsibilities
There are a number of potential role players in an EIA, including:
proponent
consultant
interested and affected parties
Competent Agency
These roles are explained further.
3.1.1 Proponent
The proponent is the project applicant (i.e. the developer). The proponent is
responsible for complying with the requirements of the EIA process. The first
responsibility of the proponent, however, is to appoint an independent
consultant who will act on the proponent’s behalf in the EIA process. The
proponent should ensure that the consultant has:
• expertise in environmental assessment and management;
• the ability to manage the required participation process
• the ability to produce reports that are readable, thorough and
informative
• a good working knowledge of environmental impact assessment and
management policies, legislation, guidelines and standards.
The proponent may appoint an independent consultant or a multi-disciplinary
group of consultants.
The proponent is responsible for all associated costs incurred when following
the EIA process. The proponent must ensure that adequate participation of the
Competent Agency and interested and affected parties has been carried out.
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On completion of the EIA, it will be the proponent’s responsibility to ensure that
the Conditions of Approval are carried out (including monitoring and auditing).
3.1.2 Consultant
The independent consultant acts on behalf of the proponent in complying to the
EIA process and is responsible for showing that he/she has:
• expertise in environmental assessment and management;
• the ability to manage the required participation process
• the ability to produce reports that are readable, thorough and
informative
• a good working knowledge of environmental impact assessment and
management policies, legislation, guidelines and standards.
Further the consultant is responsible for all processes, plans and reports
produced while following the EIA process and should have adequate access to
facilities for storing this information. The consultant should also ensure that all
of this information is made available to the Competent Agency. The consultant
must ensure that adequate participation of the Competent Agency and
interested and affected parties has been carried out.
The consultant must ensure that he/she has no vested (financial or otherwise)
interest in the proposed development other than ensuring compliance to the
EIA process. Furthermore, the consultant may not work for the Competent
Agency while working for the proponent on a particular application. This is key
aspect in ensuring that the findings of the EIA are unbiased and in the best
interest of all stakeholders.
3.1.3 Interested and affected parties
Interested and affected parties (IAPs) are key to a successful EIA and are
responsible for providing input and comments at various stages in the EIA
process. The input from interested and affected parties should be sought
during the scoping phase, in assessing and mitigating impacts and in the
review of the EIS. In accepting the responsibility to participate, IAPs should
ensure that their inputs and comments are provided within the specified
(reasonable) time limit set by the proponent and his/her consultant. IAPs
should not be confined for projects since diversity will enhance the output of the
EIA and will ensure a detailed and unbiased assessment is carried out.
3.1.4 Competent Agency
As detailed in Section 2.4, the Federal EPA is the Competent Agency but has
devolved EIA responsibility to the Regional EPA equivalent as specified by the
Regional Environmental Committee on a project-by-project basis.
The Competent Agency is responsible for ensuring that the
proponent/consultant complies with the requirements of the EIA process. This
may mean regular and effective communication between the authority and the
proponent/consultant to provide general guidance on procedure, information
and reports required. The Competent Agency should also ensure that the
authority requirements are adhered to. This may mean the involvement of
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other responsible authorities (e.g. the Agricultural Bureau) as and when
necessary. In involving other authorities, the Competent Agency must ensure
appropriate information is provided to the sectoral authorities and that there is
efficient and adequate opportunity for communication between the authority
groups.
One of the most important functions of the Competent Agency is to
evaluate/review and provide decisions on applications. The Competent Agency
should:
ensure that the evaluation/review and decisions provided are done
efficiently and within reasonable time, and that the proponent is
informed timeously of any delays that may be incurred through the
review process; and
ensure that the proponent/consultant is informed of any shortfalls in the
process as identified through the reviews.
The Competent Agency should strive to ensure that the information required
through the EIA process is kept to only that which is relevant to decision-
making so as not to unnecessarily burden the proponent with additional cost or
to increase the time spent on the EIA needlessly.
The Competent Agency must not be responsible for conducting an EIA as this
would constitute a serious conflict of interest in the decision-making process.
3.2 Pre-screening consultation
Pre-screening contact is advisable as it can save time for all parties. A mutual
understanding of the requirements can be obtained from the outset. In this
phase the proponent should contact the Competent Agency in the region and
establish an official contact person who will assist in guiding the process. The
consultation may take the form of a formal meeting, a telephonic conversation
or correspondence by means of facsimile or electronic mail. Consultation at
such an early stage should avoid delays caused by requests from the authority
requiring additional information occurring at a later stage. The consultation will
also provide the opportunity for an exchange of views.
It is also recommended that the proponent contact other sectoral agencies
which may have an interest in the proposed project.
Pre-screening consultation will also allow the authority to register the
application (by opening a file or capturing the information on computer).
3.3 Screening
Prior to entering into the screening phase of the EIA it is recommended that the
proponent appoint an independent consultant to assist in the process. The
Screening phase of the EIA should decide the following:
the need for and level of assessment;
level of government to be responsible for the project (Federal or
Regional)
other necessary permits or approval processes (e.g. rezoning, etc)
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acceptability of the consultant to assist the proponent (as specified by
the roles and responsibilities of the consultant – Section 3.1.2);
the public participation process; and
the total life-cycle of the project.
The screening process would form the same purpose as a “Preliminary
Environmental Impact Assessment”.
Therefore, the proponent should submit to the Competent Agency a screening
report that contains the following (Appendix 2):
the title of the proposed activity;
the name of the proponent and the consultant(s) representing the
proponent;
the address of the proponent and the consultant(s) representing the
proponent (including telephone numbers, fax numbers and e-mail
address)
location of the proposed development;
the proposed extent of the activity; and
any potential environmental issues identified by the proponent (which
may include a short description of the affected environment).
Five copies of the screening report and accompanying documentation must be
submitted to the Competent Agency for review. The Competent Agency shall
make its decision within one month from the day of receipt of the screening
report of the proposed project regarding amendment, exemption or conducting
detailed study and notify the proponent accordingly.
In addition, the Competent Agency must inform the applicant whether the
applicant must advertise the application, and of the manner in which this must
be done. The advantages of advertising at this early stage are to formally
inform all IAPs of the potential project and the EIA process at the earliest
opportunity. Advertising may take the form of “on-site” advertising where a
notice board may be placed in the location of the site or through “media
advertising” where an advert is placed in an appropriate newspaper (i.e. one
that is read by the people where the development is proposed to take place).
3.4. Scoping
Scoping is the process of identifying and “narrowing down” the potential
environmental impacts associated with the development. The scoping process
ensures that the EIA focuses on pertinent issues. The level of an impact
assessment will depend on the nature and scale of the development proposal;
its complexity; the sensitivity of the environment; and issues identified during
the scoping process. Therefore, it is crucial that the scoping exercise is carried
out effectively.
It is recommended that the proponent or his/her consultant prepare a detailed
plan of study for the scoping exercise. This plan of study is important in
ensuring that where public consultation is required, all the relevant parties,
which may have an interest in the application, including other government
departments, are identified.
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If a plan of study for scoping is prepared, it should include:
a brief description of the activity to be undertaken;
a description of all tasks to be performed during scoping;
a schedule setting out when the tasks contemplated will be completed;
an indication of the stages at which the relevant authority will be
consulted; and
a description of the proposed methods of identifying the environmental
issues and alternatives
The advantages of preparing a plan of study for scoping is that it communicate,
at an early stage, the extent of the study. It is, therefore, recommended that
the plan of study for scoping be provided to the Competent Agency for
comment and/or approval.
Initial consultation with interested and affected parties (IAPs) really determines
the scope of the impact assessment (or whether a full EIA is in fact required at
all). It is important to maintain the scope throughout the assessment process.
Public consultation and participation aims to assure the quality,
comprehensiveness and effectiveness of the environmental assessment. It
ensures that the views and concerns of all interested and affected parties are
taken into consideration. Various techniques may be employed through the
participation exercise, including
public meetings;
telephonic surveys;
exhibits, displays and “open days”;
newspaper advertisements;
written information
surveys, interview s and questionnaires
working with established groups (e.g. NGO’s, community organisations
etc)
workshops and seminars
Public meetings are not always an effective means of conveying information to
and receiving information from the public. Therefore, for participation it is
important to consider the social and economic environment within the affected
environment of the proposal area to select an appropriate consultation
approach to ensure true consultation.
The scoping exercise should be documented in the form of a scoping report
which is submitted to the authority for review and approval. The scoping report
should basically be a concise presentation of the major issues identified and
the public participation process. As a minimum, the report should reflect the
following:
a brief description of the project;
all the alternatives identified during the scoping process;
all the issues raised by interested and affected parties and how these
will be addressed; and
a description of the public participation process including a list of
interested and affected parties, and minutes of meetings.
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It is recommended that the scoping report contain a detailed plan of study for
the EIA, should an EIA be considered to be necessary. This plan of study will
ensure that the relevant alternatives are investigated further and that the critical
issues are carried forward into further processes. Specialists may need to be
appointed to assess certain aspects in detail, as identified through the issues in
the scoping exercise. The plan of study for EIA will form the basis of Terms or
Reference for the EIA. The plan of study for EIA should contain the following:
a description of the environmental issues identified during scoping that
may require further investigation and assessment;
a description of the feasible alternatives identified during scoping that
may be further investigated;
an indication of additional information required to determine the
potential impacts of the proposed activity on the environment;
a description of the proposed method of identifying these impacts; and
a description of the proposed method of assessing the significance of
these impacts.
It is important that the information in this report is as comprehensive as
possible since a decision regarding whether the project should go ahead or not,
and whether an EIA is required to further investigate issues and alternatives,
will be made on the basis of this report. In many cases where there are no
major issues identified, the scoping report will be sufficient for a decision to be
made and no further studies will be required.
Alternatively, further investigations may be required, or a full EIA may be called
for.
The IAPs should be afforded an opportunity to review the scoping report. This
ensures verification of the process before it is too far advanced. The kinds of
situations which may prompt organisations to object would be where key
parties have not been consulted, or where significant issues or alternatives are
omitted from the proposed investigation. IAP review should determine whether
the issues raised have been addressed in the scoping report. IAPs should be
afforded a reasonable timeframe for their review - typically in the region of four
weeks. The process of IAP review should be reflected in the final scoping
report.
Five copies of the scoping report should be submitted to the Competent
Agency for review. The Competent Agency should review the document to
determine whether the process followed in preparing the report has been
adequate and that there has been sufficient consultation with IAPs. Sufficiency
should be based on the discretion of the reviewer.
The review should also contain an analysis of the information provided to
determine whether due attention has been paid to possible project alternatives
and whether the issues identified have been afforded appropriate attention.
The authority should complete the review within four weeks of receipt of the
scoping report. The authority may request, where it feels unqualified to review
a scoping report, that the proponent appoint an independent specialist reviewer
to provide comment on the report. The independent specialist should,
however, be selected by the authority to ensure an unbiased assessment of the
report.
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Following the review of the scoping report the Competent Agency may request
that portions of the document be amended or may decide to approve or reject
the application without the requirement for further investigation (Section 3.6).
Should the information be inadequate to take a decision, the Competent
Agency may request that the scoping report be supplemented by an EIS.
3.5 Environmental Impact Assessment
In conducting the EIA, a proponent may be required to appoint technical
specialists to prepare certain aspects of the Environmental Impact Statement
(EIS). These specialist studies should be prepared in the form of specialist
reports and appended to the EIS.
It is important that the EIA report is clearly and concisely documented, so that
key issues can quickly and efficiently be identified by decision makers. An EIS
should contain the following information:
An executive summary (This summary has to be concise and present
and highlight the main issues pertinent to decision making on the
project. The summary should be developed in non-technical terms such
that it may be readily undertood by decision-makers and other
stakeholders)
List of consultants: Names and qualification of members of the study
team.
A description of the development project covering:-
Need
objectives
technical details
size, location, input and other relevant requirements
An outline of the main development alternatives.
A description of the baseline environmental, socio-economic and health
conditions such as fauna, flora, habitats, soil, water, air, cultural
artifacts, and socio-cultural, socio-economic and health considerations.
An account of the prediction and assessment of each impact at all
stages of the project cycle for each alternative. As much as possible
impact prediction should be expressed quantitatively. Information for
each impact must be provided on:
the methodology used.
the magnitude of immediate and cumulative impacts – long and
short
term (expressed in appropriate units)
whether it is adverse or beneficial
whether it is reversible or irreversible
likelihood of its occurrence “with and without” scenarios
the time span for which impacts are predicted and the geographic
boundaries selected to define the study areaDescription of
measures to
prevent or reduce significant adverse impacts or enhance beneficial
effects and an assessment of their likely outcome.
A description of residual impacts which can not be mitigated or can only
be mitigated partially.
A description of proposed monitoring schemes.
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A discussion of potential uses of the environment which will be
prevented or rendered less productive due to adverse impacts.
Description of relevant national and/or international legal reports, and
guidelines used. In the absence of Ethiopian standards the EIA should
include a description of the standards and an overview as to why a
specific standard was used.
Statement on the extent of involvement.
Identification of information gaps and uncertainties.
The budgetary implications and financial measures to be taken to
ensure that mitigation measures can be adequately carried out.
Of greatest importance in the EIS is the assessment and description of
impacts. In this regard, it may be useful to present results of the assessment in
the form of a matrix summary, whereby the different activities and associated
impacts on the environment are weighted with a scoring system. The scoring
system is not necessarily used for comparative purposes but for a simple
approach towards describing the significance of each impact. Impacts must be
described according to the following criteria:
Nature of the impact - this reviews the type of effect that a proposed
activity will have on the environment and should include “what will be
affected and how”.
Extent - this should indicate whether the impact will be locally extending
as far as the site and its immediate surroundings, or whether the
impacts may be realised regionally, nationally or even internationally.
Duration - this should review the lifetime of the impact, as being short
term (0-5 years), medium term (5-15 years), long terms (where the
impacts will cease after the operation of the site) or permanent.
Intensity - here it should be established whether the impact is
destructive or innocuous and should be described as either low (where
no environmental functions and processes are affected), medium
(where the environment continues to function but in a modified manner)
or high (where environmental functions and processes are altered such
that they temporarily or permanently ceased).
Probability - considers the likelihood of an impact occurring.
Mitigation measures should be clearly spelt out in the EIS. Mitigation measures
aim to minimise or eliminate negative impacts and enhance the benefits
wherever possible. The mitigation measures should be prepared as an
operational management plan and could include:
changes in project planning and design (particularly where the change
in design may eliminate or reduce an impact);
improving monitoring and management; and
monetary compensation.
Often the mitigation measures will include a combination of these.
On completion, the EIS should be submitted to the Competent Agency, the
IAPs and a specialist for review. The purpose of the review is to ensure that
the document is an adequate reflection of the environmental impacts that may
result from the development and that the document provides sufficient
information on which decisions may be taken. The EIS shall be submitted in
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five copies to the Competent Agency. The proponent is responsible for co-
ordinating the IAP reviews, either through distributing the document to all of the
IAPs or by making the document available in strategic places (e.g. public
libraries, schools, clinics etc).
Review of EIS’s of proposed projects will be made based on the EIA guidelines
and appropriate environmental quality standards and the relevant legislation.
Impacts identified in the document should be reviewed in terms of the EIS:
socio-economic context and potential benefits;
effect on public health or risk to life;
scale;
geographical extent;
duration and frequency;
reversibility or irreversibility;
ecological context;
regional, national or international importance; and
degree of uncertainty.
The authority review should be completed within four weeks of submission of
the final EIS.
If new issues were raised and addressed during the EIA process, these must
be added as an addendum to the initial scoping report submitted.
When the review has been completed, the Competent Agency should decide
whether to accept the application as it stands, reject the application or request
that the document be amended.
3.6 Record of decision and appeal
An application may be accepted or refused by the Competent Agency after the
screening, scoping or EIA phases of the EIA (as per Figure 3.1). The
Competent Agency must provide a record of decision report which should be
provided to the proponent be made available to any interested and affected
party on request.
The Record of Decision report should contain the following details:
a brief description of the proposed activity, the extent or quantities and
the surface areas involved, the infrastructure requirements and the
implementation programme for which the authorisation is issued;
the specific place where the activity is to be undertaken;
the name, address and telephone number of the applicant;
the name, address and telephone number of any consultant involved;
the date of, and persons present at, site visits, if any;
the decision of the relevant authority;
the conditions of the authorisation (if any), including measures to
mitigate, control or manage environmental impacts or to rehabilitate the
environment;
the key factors that led to the decision;
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the date of expiry of the duration of the authorisation;
the name of the person to whom an appeal may be directed;
the signature of a person who represents the relevant authority; and
the date of the decision.
The Record of Decision Report may form the basis of an Environmental
Clearance Certificate if the project is approved and may contain the details of
the Conditions of Approval.
A proponent or other interested party who is dissatisfied may object to actions,
opinions or decision made not later than 30 days after receipt of such a
decision. Appeal should be submitted in writing, clearly specifying the grounds
for the appeal to the RECC’s or to the General Manager of the EPA -
depending on the Competent Agency for the EIA. The Head of the Competent
Agency should make his decision within 30 (thirty) days following the receipt of
the appeal.
Please note that the Competent Agency is responsible for the decision and is,
therefore, solely responsible for dealing with the review, though he/she may
choose to involve a specialist for aspects where competency is insufficient to
provide an adequate review. It is not the proponent’s responsibility to deal with
the review in any capacity.
3.7 Conditions of approval
The Conditions of Approval may be included into the Record of Decision but
are typically prepared as a separate document.
Ideally, the EIA should specify clearly the mitigation measures for each
identified impact. An EIA might indicate that a development would have a
significant negative impact on the environment, without mitigation. In this
instance, the authority, in approving a proposal may wish to make
implementation of mitigation measures on condition of approval. The
proponent may then be required to submit a detailed environmental
management plan (EMP). The EMP would describe in detail how each
mitigation measure would be undertaken. Monitoring criteria should also be
supplied and responsibilities clearly defined. Positive measures should also be
enhanced through management or mitigation measures.
The EMP may need to be publicly reviewed. Only once the adequacy of the
EMP is agreed to, would the EIA and EMP be approved and development
allowed to commence. Regular independent monitoring would be undertaken
at the cost of the proponent. This would be relayed to the authority who would
ensure and enforce compliance with EMP.
The condition of approval is a legally binding relationship between the authority
and the developer. The purpose of the contract is to provide the authority with
an additional means of ensuring that the EMP , and any other environmental
requirements are implemented to their satisfaction.
3.8. Auditing
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It is the responsibility of the proponent to conduct regular internal audits of the
environmental performance of the operation. The audits should be a
systematic evaluation of the activities of the operation in relation to the
specified criteria of the condition of approval. The auditing results should be
submitted to the Competent Agency for review and comment. Included in the
auditing process should be compliance monitoring of the surrounding
environment. The compliance monitoring should be the responsibility of the
proponent and the results submitted to the Competent Agency. The
Competent Agency may choose to undertake ad hoc monitoring to verify the
compliance monitoring results. The auditing of the competent agency would be
in the form of verification of internal reports.
The auditing and monitoring results may be prepared in the form of an
Environmental Performance Report which should describe the extent to which
the organisation has complied to its environmental requirements. The report
should be submitted to the Competent Agency but may further be submitted to
the IAPs for their comment and review. The aim of the report should be to
provide honest information about environmental performance.
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CHAPTER 4 : STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES
No environmental standards have as yet been established for Ethiopia. This
may be a barrier to effective environmental management and assessment, as
there is no consensus on acceptable environmental performance for polluters
and/or resource users. In other countries government policy and legislation
have called for the establishment of guidelines, parameters, limits, standards,
values, norms, criteria and indicators to ensure sustainable use of the
environment. The Environmental Protection Authority is in the process of
establishing standards and guidelines that are applicable in Ethiopia. However,
in the absence of Ethiopia specific standards, the evaluation of impacts in the
EIA process must specify the standards used and why that particular standard
has been used.
Setting standards or guidelines should consider local conditions and the socio-
economic level of a particular situation. On this basis, the quoted standards of
developed countries (like USA, Belgium etc) should be applied with caution,
recognising the inherent limitations of their application.
This Chapter, therefore, provides background information to standards and
guidelines in general.
A number of terms relate to levels of environmental quality and may include:
Standards:
Quantifiable limits with regard to volumes, concentrations and numbers (van
Viegen, 1998) and values that are written into law
Guidelines:
Practical tools not written into law
Values and norms:
Limits that are generally acceptable by society. Norms are set by society.
Criteria:
Relate to specific objectives that need to be attained to achieve a
predetermined result
Objectives:
The basis of action plans drawn up to achieve standards or remain within limits
demarcated by standards. These are set by ‘managers’ in agreement with
‘society’
The most commonly used terms though are standards and guidelines. They
are quantifiable and if written into law, they are termed standards; if they are
the basis of action plans for achieving them, they are sometimes termed
objectives or targets; and if they are practical tools not written into law, they
are usually termed guidelines.
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The determination of standards and guidelines is situation specific, therefore,
Ethiopia will in time determine its own standards and guidelines. Table 4.1
provides an overview towards the different processes for determining
appropriate standards and guidelines.
Appendix 3 contains specific standards and guidelines from other parts of the
world for air and water quality. Please note that the standards provided are for
ambient concentrations are simply examples of the different ambient guidelines
that may be used.
Table 4.1 : STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES FOR AMBIENT CONDITIONS
ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA
STDS/GUIDELINES/CRITERIA
AVAILABLE
RATIONALE &
APPROACH
Freshwater ecosystems
International
World Health Organisation
Guidelines
European Community
Drinking Water Standards
Australian, Canadian and
USA water quality criteria
and guidelines
South African
SABS Applications for water
quality
CSIR Drinking Water Criteria
Dept of National Health &
Population Development
Criteria for Water Quality
DWAF internal discussion
document
Rationale to:
Develop a single set
of guidelines and
criteria that was
appropriate as a
baseline in SA
Modify international
guidelines in the
light of local
research and
experience
Approach taken:
Guidelines to serve
as a stand-alone
source of
information and
support base for
decisions. Site
specific guidelines
should support this
base.
Air environment WHO Guidelines for “classical
compounds”
USEPA Guidelines for 6
“criteria pollutants”
Canadian Guidelines
UK Guidelines
NZ Guidelines
Not written into law but
serves as important
benchmarks.
Terrestrial Ecosystems Do not exist
Human Communities No standards available – only value
judgements, mostly of a regional or
local scale
Other Guidelines available Canadian Environmental Quality
Guidelines
Includes guidelines on water
(ambient and drinking), air,
sediment, soil and tissue
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CHAPTER 5 : ISSUES FOR SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN ETHIOPIA
The following sections describe issues for EIA in specific development
sectors in Ethiopia. The EIA process, as described in Chapter 3 must be
followed in each of these sectors, however, the details provided here aim at
identifying the possible impacts as well as mitigation measures that should
be considered in EIA’s that may be conducted. The information provided is
by no means comprehensive and would need to be embellished during the
EIA process. The purpose of this section is to simply highlight potential
environmental concerns related to these development activities.
The following sectors have been described:
• Agriculture
• Industry
• Transport
• Mining
• Dams and reservoirs
• Tannery
• Textile
• Hydropower generation
• Irrigation projects
• Resettlement projects
This section has been structured so as to describe the development sector in
general and then to highlight the potential environmental impacts. The impacts
are listed to assist the scoping and assessment phases in an EIA. It must be
noted however that each project is unique and only some of the more
generalized impacts are presented. The guidelines can also serve as an aid to
authorities when reviewing the EIA process.
The issues for environmental assessment in each of the development sectors
has been prepared as a Table. In the Tables, the left had column broadly
describes the potential broad scale issue that might result from the activity, the
central column considers the specific action that might result from the activity
while the right hand column provides a description of the potential impact that
might result. When utilising the table, the reader is encouraged to firstly
consider the potential for a particular issue occurring and then evaluate the
potential for a specific impact. Potential measures for managing the
environmental concerns are also provided for each sector.
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5.1 Agriculture
5.1.1 Background
Agriculture is the dominant sector of the Ethiopian economy accounting for
about 50% of GDP and 85 % of export revenue, and providing livelihood for 85
% of the population. Agriculture in Ethiopia is mainly mixed crop and animal
production in the wetter highland and trans-human animal production in the
drier lowlands. It is envisaged that agriculture will continue to dominate the
economy and this aim is being furthered by the declared Agricultural
Development-Led-Industrialization (ADLI) policy. The main objective of the
ADLI policy is improving agricultural productivity of small holder agriculture and
related industrialization, based on increased provision of agricultural raw
materials to the industrial sector.
Past experience has shown that small scale peasant farming and some large
scale mechanized agriculture have caused massive environmental degradation
such as deforestation, soil erosion and water quality deterioration.
Environmental degradation is compounded by unwise use of natural resources
and the absence of integration of environmental requirements in most of the
development projects.
The fast-tracking of development endeavours in this sector, in the absence of
an Environmental Impact Assessment system, could lead to severe
environmental impacts. Highlighting the environmental impact considerations
associated with agriculture will hopefully make agricultural sector projects
environmentally sustainable.
5.1.2 Issues for environmental assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
Issue Sources/Causes Impact
CROP HUSBANDRY
Soil degradation fertilizer use
pesticide use
mechanisation
poor farming practices
Soil erosion through soil cultivation, deforestation and the removal of
vegetation
Soil compaction
Sedimentation in the irrigation system
Acidification of the soil through the use of fertilizers and the leaching
process
Salinisation of the soil
Soil pollution through the use of pesticides & artificial fertilizers
Nutritional deficiencies as a result of nutrients being taken out of the
soil by crops
Local climatic change Irrigation
Ground cover
Photosynthesis
Change in local humidity
Changes in local temperature
Damage to water
resource
Run-off
Fertilizers
Sediments
Pesticides
Nutrients and salts
Pollution of surface water
Increased algal growth & eutrophication from nitrogen and
phosphorus runoff into water
Reduced water quality and sunlight penetration due to suspended
particles
Ground water pollution
Increased nitrate concentrations
Pesticide pollution of ground water
Water supply contamination by waste oil from machinery
Deterioration of water quality by sedimentation released by soil
erosion
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
Issue Sources/Causes Impact
Genetic
transformation
Importation of seeds &
plants
Importation of genetically
modified foods/plants
Potential for human consumption of treated grain seed
Threat to existing genetic diversity
Threat to human health
Disturbance of the
natural environment
Aesthetics
Encroachment into the
natural environment
Barrier effects of cultivated
land
Threat to biological diversity and preservation of ecosystems
Obstruction of the migrational paths of wildlife
Increased activity and impacts on natural environments
Changes in biological diversity promoted by traditional farming
activities
Reduction of the aesthetic value of an area
Maintenance of
culturally/historically
significant sites
Encroachment of
agricultural project onto
significant sites
Loss or damage of historical monuments or relics, burial sites,
sacred sites or other significant cultural or historical objects
Health and safety Introduction of pests and
diseases with new seeds
and plants
Irrigation systems
Pesticides
Introduction of new species and varieties of pests & diseases
Spread of pests through dissemination by irrigation systems
Potential impacts of pesticide use in pest eradication
Land use conflict
Utilization of natural
resources
Change in social
structure
Change in land use
Resettlement
Barrier effects of cultivated
land
Secondary growth
Use of new technologies
Conflict with other forms of land use
Forced removal of permanent residents
Obstruction to the migration paths of people and animals
Influx of people looking for work opportunities in the project area
Increased pressure on natural resources through migration
Increased use of child labour
Consequences of the introduction of new technologies and inputs
such as greater risk and expense
Increased pressure on local authorities and infrastructure
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Over-utilization
Soil damage
Aesthetics
Overgrazing
Free grazing
Manure Production
Livestock based industries
and transport
Growth and production of animals impeded by overgrazing and the
subsequent decrease in the food supply
Trampling resulting in vegetation loss and soil erosion
Use of vulnerable land leading to soil erosion through overgrazing
Soil erosion may damage water resources
Pollution of the soil by excess manure
Disposal on land of by products from food industry
Chrome pollution from tanning industry
Overuse of transportation networks with increased production, leads
to dust problems and a strain on infrastructure
Alteration of the visual character of the landscape
Air pollution
Acid rain
Environmental health
Global warming
Dust
Smell
Manure production
Livestock based industries
and transport
Odour problems relating to manure production
Impact on human and animal health due to excess ammonia and
H2S production
Dust production through increased transportation
Increased GHG production by ruminants and through increased
refrigeration and freezing facilities
Water pollution
Eutrophication
Overuse of resource
Manure production
Livestock based industries
and transport
Water consumption
Pollution of surface water by manure
Eutrophication of water bodies by surplus nutrients from manure
Pollution of ground water by nitrates from manure
Overconsumption of water leads to a lowering of the water table
Health and safety Introduction and growth of
parasite populations
Inferior nutrition
Pesticides
Antibiotics
Potential for parasite population increase around watering sources,
feeding places and/or pastures
Increased vulnerability to disease due to inferior nutrition
Introduction of new diseases or parasites with new livestock
Movement of chemical pesticides, to eradicate pesticides, into the
environment
Implications of antibiotic use for developing resistant microbes and
polluting the environment
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
Issue Sources/Causes Impact
Genetic
transformation
Introduction of exotic
livestock breeds
Displacement of plant
varieties
Displacements of plant varieties and subsequent loss of plant
genetic variation due to greater efficiency in animal husbandry
Loss of genes due to the introduction of exotic livestock breeds
Pressure on sensitive
ecosystems
Expropriation of land for
animal husbandry
Destruction or modification of vulnerable or valuable ecosystems
Maintenance of
culturally/historically
significant sites
Expropriation of land for
animal husbandry
Loss or damage of historical monuments or relics, burial sites,
sacred sites or other significant cultural or historical objects
Land use conflicts
Utilization of natural
resources
Change in social
structure
Changes in land use
Secondary growth
Use of natural resources
Conflict over scarce land resources
Uncontrolled immigration into the project area
Conflict between existing populations and new comers
Increased pressure on natural resources
5.1.3. Recommendations for environmental management
Use of fertilizers: Consideration must be given to the use of both
organic and artificial fertilizers, as well as nitrogen fixing plants.
Fertilizer use should follow specific guidelines
There should be control of seed importation by local authorities to stop
the import of plant diseases and pests
Ensure that the national legal framework, in terms of seed importation
and plant spreading, is known to those involved in the project
In the case of genetically modified organisms, obtainment of a permit
Adequate provision of amenities for those relocated and those who
move into an area
Empowerment of women in all capacities
Primary focus should be on the growth of subsistence foods
The type of project must ensure the provision of a sustainable income
for farmers
Types of land tenure which can promote overgrazing should be
considered e.g. Communal ownership
Provision of adequate veterinary services
Proximity to conservation areas may require the creation of buffer zones
Local knowledge of animal husbandry should be utilised
Due cognisance given to local traditions, taboos and other socio-
cultural conditions linked to livestock and nutrition. Projects should
avoid agricultural produce which would not be eaten
Implementation of special measures to reduce soil erosion e.g. build
terraces, cover exposed soil
Preference should be given to strategies which provide the desired
development without the loss of genetic material
Alternative uses of manure should be investigated
There should be protection of sites of cultural/historical/ecological
importance
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5.2 Industry
5.2.1 Background
There are about 1,263 industrial enterprises in Ethiopia. The majority of them
are in manufacturing and processing, including textiles, chemicals, metal,
leather, food and beverage, paper and printing, sugar, tobacco, wood-working,
construction and mining.
Industrial activity is concentrated mainly in and around Addis Ababa,
accounting for about two thirds of the manufacturing value added (MVA). This
has resulted in a major water pollution problem in Addis Ababa. The limited
number of project specific river basin studies carried out so far by Government
bodies, have indicated that industrial/urban pollution of water resources is a
problem especially in the Awash River and Rift Valley Lakes Basin.
Furthermore, the new economic policy adopted by the government is
envisaged to encourage the acceleration of local as well as foreign investment
in the industrial and agricultural economic sectors of the country. The expected
rapid development will have both positive and negative impacts. The economic
development will improve the standard of living of citizens. However, the
associated pollution could outweigh the benefits, particularly in Ethiopia which
has poor infrastructure for public health and environmental protection. A
proper monitoring mechanism incorporating design, operations, and shutdown
of industrial plants needs to be established. EPA, therefore formulated a
checklist for the manufacturing and processing industries. Environmental
issues that were raised by EPA have been incorporated into this document.
5.2.2 Issues for environmental assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Pressure on the natural
resource base
(effect on the overall
ecosystem operation)
Extraction of raw materials
Water consumption
Energy consumption
Prospect of employment-
influx of people
Unsustainable utilization of natural resources
eg water, trees, coal, soil
Water quality Discharges of solid/dissolved
substances eg mineral waste,
animal and vegetable waste,
waste-containing fibres,
hazardous waste
Pollution of ground & surface water, silting,
sedimentation, eutrophication
Soil quality Discharges of solid/dissolved
substances e.g. mineral
waste, animal and vegetable
waste, waste-containing
fibres, hazardous waste
Salinisation, pollution of soil
Air quality Emissions of dust
Emission of gases
Noise
Air pollution-damage or discomfort to natural
environment & humans
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Hazardous substances Environmentally hazardous
substances e.g. toxins,
carcinogenic substances,
ozone depleting substances,
explosive or inflammable
materials, radioactive
substances
Environmental health
Sensitive ecosystems /
species
Structure & layout of industrial
plant & roads
Barrier to migration & dispersal-isolation &
extinction
Expropriate important areas from fauna &
flora
Operation of industrial plant &
associated infrastructure
Threaten vulnerable, or conservation worthy
species
Introduction of exotic
species & pests
Transport - Introduction of
exotic species
Industrial site - Suitable living
conditions for pests
Exotics threaten indigenous species
Pests pose health risk
Associated
infrastructure
Transport-roads, traffic,
Power supply
Telecommunications
Pollution
Noise
Threat to pedestrian & animal safety
Threat to biodiversity
Soil erosion
Water pollution
Visual impacts
Maintenance of the
historical, cultural, or
religious landscape
Construction, operation of
industry
Intrusion in landscape
Migration of people
Negative impact on aesthetics
Destruction and/or damage to significant
buildings, areas
Change in social
structure and way of life
Location of industry Resettlement (See 6.10)
Introduction of industrial way
of life
Change in power structures
Shifts in division of labour between genders
Child labour
Rural-urban migration Slum settlements
Conflicts between new and old residents,
Change in land-use
Competition between
land-uses
Occupation of land, impacts of
industry
Negative economic impacts on other sectors
e.g. agriculture
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Human health Use, accidental discharge &
transportation of inflammable,
toxic, explosive, chemical
substances
Industrial activities such as
painting, welding,
electroplating, and battery
manufacture result in
exposure to heavy metals e.g.
lead, mercury, cadmium, zinc,
cobalt and beryllium
Noise
Factories that release mineral
dust e.g. silica and asbestos-
glass manufacturing industry,
foundry, cement, asbestos
plants
Factories that release organic
dust are those that process
grain, cotton, coffee, sisal,
wood etc.
Solvents in printing industry,
thinners in the manufacture of
paints & glues, dyes in
textiles, leather & shoes,
organic materials used in
chemical industries
Ill-health
Hearing impairment, disturbance of sleep in
the vicinity of the factory
Inhalation of dust in high doses over a long
duration can result in pneumoconiosis
(asbestosis & carcinoma of the lung)
Organic materials may cause kidney & liver
damage, haematopoietic system damage,
neurotoxicity and cancer.
Human safety Mechanical equipment
Explosions, fires e.g.
manufacture of chemicals
Injury, death
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5.2.3 Recommendations for Environmental Management
New industry to be sited at a sufficient distance from environmentally sensitive
areas wherever practically possible
Environmental monitoring during construction and operation
Implement an environmental management system which ensures environmental
responsibility at all levels
Utilize environmentally friendly technologies
Implement cleaner production strategy - alternative products, production
processes, raw materials, energy sources, prevent or reduce waste, waste
recycling, re-use
Introduce water and energy saving measures
Discharge points should be located downstream of supply sources of drinking
water
Delineation of location of waste dumps
Locate chimneys and waste pipes appropriately
Monitor volume and composition of discharges regularly
Ensure that sensitive environments, and residential areas will not be affected by
noise, especially at night
Reliable information system and a mechanism for labelling, handling, and stocking
of dangerous substances
Maintain safety equipment
Emergency proceduresRehabilitation upon closure of industry
Training programme to assist labour force in adapting to an industrial way of li
5.3 Transport
5.3.1 Background
The transport system constitutes one of the most vital component’s of a country’s physical
infrastructure and plays a significant strategic role in overall development. Surface
transport, comprising road and rail, is the major system in Ethiopia. The air transport
service is also growing. Surface transport contributes about 99.5% of the total domestic
passenger and cargo traffic delivered by motorized means of transportation. Road
transport accounts for over 97% of this total. In line with the Agricultural Development Led
Industrialization (ADLI) policy, the transportation sector is recognized as having a crucial
role to play in sustainable development of the country. The Road Sector Development
Programme has been created to speed up the improvement and expansion of the road
network. The Ethiopian Airline envisages a 70% increase in its carrying capacity by the
end of a five-year development plan period.
Transport normally confers scope for increased mobility, access to markets and public
services and other benefits of reduced isolation. However improved transport, whether by
new routes or through the rehabilitation and upgrading of existing ones may be
accompanied by adverse environmental impacts.
A transport system development will invariably impact on the natural environment in the
vicinity of the infrastructure. The severity of the impact and the possibility for adaptation to
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the impact and for undertaking mitigative measures depends on the characteristics of the
ecosystem, the transport system dimension and the traffic volume as well as the changes
the system brings about on settlement and land use.
These impacts can be differentiated according to whether they occur in the construction
phase or during the operating phase. The impacts can be direct at the site and immediate
environs or indirect in the adjoining region.
5.3.2 Issues for environmental assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN TRANSPORT PROJECTS
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Pollution
Environmental Health
Pesticide use
Construction machinery
Release of pesticides, used for removal and
clearing of vegetation, into the environment
Oil and grease discharge from machinery used in
construction
Waste and sewage disposal from temporary
worker settlements
Soil Erosion
Modification of water courses
Disturbance of riparian
ecosystems
Bridge and drain construction
Earthwork operations
Quarry and borrow site
operations
Diversion of waterways
Promotion of soil erosion through inappropriately
constructed drains
Construction of bridges across watercourses
change currents and increase erosion potential
Soil instability which can lead to landslides
Modification of water courses may affect the
functioning of riparian ecosystems
Modification of cultural resources
Aesthetics
Expropriation of land for
transport infrastructure
Creation of embankment cuts,
fills and quarries
Damage or loss of landscapes, cultural relics or
other significant sites
Pollution of soil, water and air
Environmental Health
Nuisance
Waste disposal
Secondary growth
Accidents
Vehicle emissions
Pollution caused by inadequate waste discharge
and treatment facilities in settlements developed
because of the project
Introduction of environmentally dangerous
substances into the environment during accidents
Increase in emission of gases and particles into
the atmosphere
Pollution of water sources and vulnerable
ecosystems by run-off water from the roads
Crop damage and health problems from excessive
dust creation
Noise problems for developments in proximity to
transport infrastructure
Barrier impacts created by
transport infrastructure
Impairment of habitat functioning
Disturbance of the natural
environment
Development of linear structures
in the environment
Impediment of movement and communication for
people and animals across transport artery
Fragmentation of habitats and human land use
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN TRANSPORT PROJECTS
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Degradation and loss of
ecosystems, biodiversity and
natural resources
Expropriation of the natural
environment for transport
infrastructure
Intrusive land use in the natural environment
Change in demography of animal and plant
species
Degradation of breeding areas for commercially
valuable fauna
Indirect impact of pollution on flora and fauna
outside the project area
Increased accessibility to natural areas
Creation of transmission corridors for alien
invasive species
Implications of future expansion of road projects
on natural resources
Modification of the way cities and villages expand
– urban sprawl
Loss of land which may result in resettlement or
land use conflicts
Induced development around transport
infrastructure
Increased availability of motorized alternatives
may adversely affect the non-motorized
transportation economy
“Culture shock” from exposure of secluded
communities to aggressive outside influences
Accidents
Noise
Health and safety Disturbance of settlements and significant sites
near the transport facility from noise
Explosions and fires during the transportation of
oil, gas or other dangerous substances
Increased accident risk for the public
Increased health problems relating to dust and
vehicle emissions
Creation of transmission corridors for diseases and
pests
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5.3.3 Recommendations for environmental management
Proper provision must be made for the management and disposal of waste and
sewage from temporary worker settlement
A clean-up programme must be instituted in the project area after the construction
phase is complete
Vulnerability of project area to erosion must be considered in the siting of transport
infrastructure
Excavation should not be undertaken during high erosion risk periods
Location for excavations for sand, gravel and stone for construction should be sited
away from erosion risk areas
Systems should be implemented to minimize erosion during construction
Design of drains and pipes must prevent erosion by water flowing off it on to the road
Significant sites or relics must be identified and preserved
Decrease visual impact by improving the design of transport facilities
Vulnerability of natural features such as riverbanks and coastlines to barriers should
be considered
Attempts must be made to protect valuable ecosystems
An accident response system should be put into place to support transport
infrastructure
Adequate compensation should be provided for people who are resettled
Good traffic control systems must be developed
Quarry and borrow sites should be rehabilitated after use
5.4 Mining
5.4.1 Background
The Ethiopian EPA defines mining as “all intrusions on nature with the objective of exploiting
mineral resources”. Ethiopia has various valuable deposits such as gold, construction,
industrial, and precious minerals, oil, and gas. The Ministry of Mines and Energy has a
geological map depicting where these deposits are located. The major mining activities are
limited to gold, soda-ash, construction minerals, oil, and gas. Mining results in disturbance of
the surface, underlying strata including aquifers, and the atmosphere. It has negative impacts
on the visual resources, biodiversity, soils, water, air quality, and noise levels; socio-economic
environment; archaeology; and poses risks of flooding, and seismic hazards. Mining
accounted for less than 3% of the GDP and less than 2% of merchandise exports in 1995.
However, a new economic policy has resulted in high investment in mining. This could result
in greater environmental damage.
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5.4.2. Issues for Environmental Management
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE MINING SECTOR
ISSUES SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACTS
Pressure on the natural resource base Extraction of raw materials
Water consumption
Energy consumption
Prospect of employment-influx of people
Unsustainable utilization of natural
resources e.g. water, trees, land
clearance
Water quality Mine water tailings
Non-conventional extraction techniques
Extraction of gold using mercury
Mineral dressing operations
Wastewater containing oil and other
chemicals
Discharge drainage-acid waste water
containing heavy metals
Washing & classification of sand, waste
water, rock dust & residues of explosives
Open pit water can contaminate fresh
surface waters
Blasting-nitrates & nitrites
Spillages & leakages of fuel & lubricants
from mechanical plants
Waste dumps
Toxic impacts on ground & surface water,
eutrophication
Health impacts to animals & humans
Affects other sectors e.g. drinking water,
irrigation, agriculture
Soil quality Extraction of sand & gravel from the river
bed
Clearing of vegetation exposes fertile
topsoil
Mining on slopes
Soil erosion
Air quality Open pit mining-extraction of sands &
gravels
Transport of sand & gravel on open
truck-dust discharges
Noise
Extraction-residue & slag which is
resuspended as dust through wind
erosion
Dust
Nuisance to settlements along main road
& close to quarry
Impacts on vegetation & humans
Extraction of coal through open pit
mining-incomplete combustion
Toxic organic substances
Sensitive ecosystems / species Borrow sites for open pit mining,
stockpiling areas, access tracks, &
quarries
Large facilities create barriers
Disturbance & replacement/
expropriation of the natural environment
Barriers to migration, dispersal result in
isolation and therefore threaten fauna &
flora
Introduction of exotic species & pests Transport-introduction of pests
Industrial site provides suitable living
conditions for pests
Threaten indigenous species
Pests pose health risk
Associated infrastructure Access roads Pedestrian & wildlife mortality
Maintenance of the historical, cultural, or
religious landscape
Intrusion in the landscape-
waste dumps, open pit mining, tailing
ponds, mining facilities
Migration of people
Negative impact on aesthetics & scenic
value
Vandalisation of unprotected relics
Change in social structure & way of life Labour-extraction of sand & gravel
Location of industry
Women & child labour
Change in power structures
Resettlement (See 6.10)
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE MINING SECTOR
ISSUES SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACTS
Employment: Rural-urban migration Slum settlements, urbanisation, conflicts
between newcomers & old residents
Strain on community services
Changes in land-use
Land-use Mining requires a large amount of land Conflicts with existing land-use and land
tenure system
Economy Initiation of other activities due to mining
Mining (vibration & blasting)
Stimulation of economy due to secondary
development
Interfere with other activities
Human safety Mechanical equipment, electrical energy,
Explosives
Accidental discharge of dangerous
substances
Injury
Human health Carcinogenic substances e.g. asbestos
Quartz dust, nickel dust
Radio-active substances
Heavy metals- lead,
mercury
Central nervous system disorder, acute
illness
Incomplete combustion of coal-Toxic
organic gases e.g. carbon monoxide
Headache, vertigo (small amts),
asphyxiation, and death (large amts)
Waste created during operations e.g.
gangue containing sulphides, tailings
containing sulphide
Hazardous to people & environment
Noise-mechanical plant operations &
blasting in open pit mining
Hearing impairment, disturbance of sleep
& psychosomatic illnesses
5.4.3. Recommendations for environmental management
Sufficient distance from vulnerable natural areas (including forests, historical sites,
water resources etc.)
Environmental management system to ensure environmental responsibility
Knowledge of local, national, and international environmental requirements
The following issues of health and safety are addressed in the Council of Ministers
Regulations on Mining Operation No. 182/1994, and Labour Proclamation No.
42/1993:
Protective clothing and equipment
Training
Medical facilities
Procedures for safe transport, storage, handling, and use of explosives and
chemicals
Notification of licensing authority upon serious accidents, and necessity for
mitigatory measures
All installations to be rendered safe upon termination of license
Closure and rehabilitation plan - e.g. sinking fund
The Council of Ministers Regulations on Mining Operation No. 182/1994 also forbids
mining in sensitive locations as outlined in the regulations
Wastes of hazardous products should be treated properly
Measure for reduction of discharges to the air
Location of discharge outlets for waste water, and of chimneys to ensure dispersal of
discharge substances
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Plan of operation which considers short and long-term pollution
Tailing ponds of adequate dimensions to withstand natural disasters
Management of hazardous waste to be in accordance with the strictest national and
international regulations and guidelines
Rehabilitation measures upon closure - sinking fund account
Geology of the area taken into account to prevent cave-ins or landslides
Safety zones around open pit mining facilities
Controlled use of dangerous substances
Emergency procedures in case of accidents
Water consumption to be in accordance with existing water use in the area
Utilise environmentally friendly technology
5.5 Dams and Reservoirs
5.5.1. Background
Dams and reservoirs are built for hydroelectric power generation, irrigation, domestic and
industrial water supply, fishery development, recreation and flood protection. Ethiopia is
endowed with rich water resources, which are divided into 111.1 billion m3 of annual surface
water run off, and approximately 2.9 billion m3 of ground water potential. However, a very
small fraction of the resource is available for use and the water supply can be short at specific
localities. According to 1990 estimates, clean water supply for domestic and municipal use
was provided to only 27.2% of the total population of 51.5 million people. According to the
Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia (CSE) only 1% of the water resource potential is used for
irrigated agricultural development and hydro-power generation.
The need for self-sufficiency in food through expansion of irrigated agriculture and fishery
resources, hydropower generation, provision of reliable water for domestic and municipal use
has been steadily increasing and become critical. All these development endeavours involve
construction of a large number of dams that might have significant adverse impacts on the
bio-physical and human environment. The Agricultural Led Industrialization Development
Strategy and new economic policy initiatives mean that dam and reservoir development
projects have been given high priority.
Dams and reservoirs may cause irreversible social and environmental damages over a wide
geographic area. Environmental impact assessment helps to identify such issues early
enough so that corrective measures, options, monitoring mechanisms can be incorporated in
the project’s design and implementation.
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5.5.2 Issues for environmental assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF DAM AND RESERVOIR PROJECTS
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
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Alteration of the microclimate Creation of a large surface area
for evaporation
Increase in evaporation leading to changes in
temperature, fog and annual rainfall pattern.
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Habitat loss
Degradation of the natural
environment
Exceeding the carrying
capacity of the natural
environment
Expropriation of land for the
development of dams and
reservoirs
Induced development
Utilisation of natural resources
Replacement of valuable habitats by the dam or
reservoir
Degradation of the natural environment during the
construction phase
Increased population exceeding the ecological carrying
capacity of the area
Increased pressure on natural resources due to new
activities
Encroachment of anthropogenic activities into
previously protected areas
Barrier impacts
Obstruction of migratory
pathways
Change in the water regime
Control of water flow patterns
Construction of obstructive
structures across water course
Effect of inundation, altered water flow or ground water
level on fauna and flora
Dam or associated infrastructure forming a barrier to
the movement of wildlife
Implications of water flow changes to natural vegetation
and wildlife
Obstruction of fish migration by technical installations
and regulation features
Disturbance of feeding and spawning ground of
valuable species of fauna and flora
Change in water regime
Reduced water quality and
increased pollution
Water consumption Increase or decrease in flood peaks
Reduction in the total water flow due to increased
evaporation
Reduced water quality due to a decrease in the water
flow
Pollution of water sources during the construction
phase
Increased concentration of nutrients leading to
uncontrolled eutrophication
Changes in the seasonal variation in the water flow
affects navigation, fishing, cultivation and the drinking
water supply downstream
Change in the groundwater level in the surrounding
area
Erosion
Sediment Transport
Changes in water flow Increased soil erosion in vulnerable areas
Acceleration of transport of sediments and nutrients in
the water course
Repercussions of sediment build-up to downstream
erosion, the backwater effect and flooding upstream
Loss of significant sites
Degradation of cultural relics
Expropriation of land for dam and
reservoir developments
Potential for submergence of culturally/ historically
significant sites or objects
Loss of visually appealing
sites
Aesthetics
Tourism potential
Disturbance of the natural
environment
Modification of the river system
Change in water course or water flow through physical
encroachment
Creation of “hill side scars”
Loss of tourist sites along the river
Displacement of people Expropriation of land for dam and
reservoir development
Potential for displacement of people and the
implications of moving (see section 5.10)
Accessibility
Utilization of water resources
Regulation of water flow Decreased accessibility to water for drinking, irrigation
or animal husbandry due to reductions in water flow
Changes in ground water level because of regulation
Water resource use conflict between up- and
downstream users
Creation of new livelihood
opportunities
Decrease in livelihood
opportunities downstream
Induced development around
dams
Downstream water use
Sediment trapping leading to decreased productivity in
agriculture and fishing
Changes in water regime negatively impacting on fish
Increased accessibility leading to new activities which
replace the natural environment
Establishment of a reservoir displacing other activities
to ecologically vulnerable areas
Population growth
Socio-cultural conflict
Induced development Induced growth of the population caused by the project
Potential conflict between new population groups and
the original inhabitants
Changes in the traditional lifestyle
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Increased pressure on natural resources
Risk of disease and infection
Accidents
Health and safety Creation of conditions favourable to growth of disease-
spreading organisms
Increase in spread of infection due to
population growth
Risk of reservoir being used as a drinking water source
and recipient of sewage
Material and personal loss through dam failure,
landslides and flood waves
Alteration of tectonic activity leading to earthquakes
and landslides
5.5.3 Recommendations for environmental management
Siting of the dam/reservoir must take into consideration the local earthquake and
faulting activity
which may cause breaching of the dam
Population resettlement requires careful planning
Potential uses of the dam/reservoir must be explored eg. Fisheries, irrigation,
hydroelectric power and recreation
Efforts must be made to minimize damage or loss of sites of
cultural/historical/ecological significance
Negative and positive impacts should be evenly distributed in society.
5.6 Tannery
5.6.1 Background
The leather and footwear industry contributed 639.6 million birr or 10.7% of gross value of
production (GVP) for Ethiopia in 1995/96. Among the manufacturing industries, the leather
industry is ranked third after food products and beverages, and textiles in terms of contribution
to GVP. However, it contributes over 90% (366.7 million birr) of the manufactured exports.
This is composed mainly of semi-finished leather and some leather articles.
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5.6.2 Issues for Environmental Assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE TANNERY SECTOR
ISSUES SOURCES/CAUSESS IMPACTS
Pressure on the natural resource base Extraction of raw materials
Water consumption
Energy consumption
Prospect of employment-influx of people
Unsustainable utilization of natural
resources
Water quality Arsenic & chlorobenzene Contamination of groundwater
Antimony & heavy metals Contamination of sediments
Process wastes-chromium sludge,
methylene chloride
Grease-rendering fleshing process-acid
wastes
Patent leather process-caustic wastes
Discharge wastes-liquid effluents-organic
matter, chromium, sulphide, ammonium,
and other salts
Water pollution
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Soil quality Solid & liquid waste-antimony, volatile
organic compounds, heavy metals,
chrome, salts
Contamination of soil,
Reduction of soil fertility
Air quality Solvents Air pollution
Foul odours
Powdered dyestuffs Dust
Sensitive ecosystems / species Structure & layout of industrial plant &
roads
Barrier to migration & dispersal-isolation
& extinction
Expropriation of areas from fauna & flora
Disposal of hazardous wastes Health of environment
Maintenance of the historical, cultural, or
religious landscape
Intrusion in the landscape
Migration of people
Negative impact on aesthetics & scenic
value
Vandalisation of unprotected relics
Way of life Labour Women & child labour
Change in power structures
Employment: Rural-urban migration Slum settlements, urbanisation, conflicts
between newcomers & old residents
Strain on community services
Changes in land-use
Competition between land-uses Industry requires a large amount of land Conflicts with existing land-use and land
tenure system
Economy Initiation of other activities Secondary development
Interfere with other activities Hinders development in other sectors
Human safety Mechanical hazards e.g. handling of raw
stock
Machine operations-especially multi-
cylinder machines, & drums used for
tanning & dyeing
Fatigue
Hand tools
Use of chemicals
Work in danger areas of computer-
operated machines
Physical stress, injuries
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE TANNERY SECTOR
ISSUES SOURCES/CAUSESS IMPACTS
Human health Mechanical hazards-handling of raw
stock (raw or wet hides)
Salt burns, dermatitis & other allergic
reactions, anthrax, rabies
Noise- Early stages of manufacture,
drumming, buffing, & throughput staking
Hearing impairment
Powdered dyestuffs
Vegetable powders
Dust
Carcinogens
Organic chemicals
Hydrogen sulphide-early stages of
tanning process/ accidental discharge of
sulphuric acid
Solvents & dyestuffs-shoe industry
Isocyanates-ingredient of polyurethane
(footwear)
Chrome oxide
Organic chemicals are toxic to humans
and environment
Hydrogen sulphide is highly toxic &
flammable
Solvents are harmful if inhaled, fire
hazard
Isocyanates are toxic
Chrome oxide can cause dermatitis,
allergies
Pesticides & preservatives to treat
bacterial damage & infestation-arsenic,
PCP
PCP is a carcinogen
5.6.3 Recommendations for Environmental Management
Implement an environmental management system which ensures environmental
responsibility at all levels
Implement cleaner production strategy
Avoid the use of hazardous pesticides or preservatives
Computerised measurement & dosing of process chemicals & dyestuffs
Controlled separation of discharge liquids adds to efficiency of recycling - reduction
of chrome consumption
Remove unwanted parts of hide/skin such as hair, trimmings & unusable bottom
splits before tanning. Can be profitably marketed as animal feeds / high humus-level
dressing for agricultural land
Use high exhaustion chemicals
United States EPA has established standards (1985) for the control of sulphides,
chromium & acidity
Replace solvents with water / foam in roller-coating or spraying
Liquid dyestuffs instead of powders
Safety committees should be formulated and procedures well-known
Proper identification of all chemicals
EC has codes of practice for operation of hazardous machines
Most countries have standards of 90 dB (A) for 8 hours of continuous exposure and
use of ear protectors, sound absorbent hoods etc
5.7 Textiles
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5.7.1 Background
In terms of gross value of production (GVP), textiles is second only to food and beverages in
the manufacturing industry with a total GVP of 701 million birr (11.7% of total GVP). The
textiles industry is second to the leather industry in export contribution earning 17 million birr
(4.2% of total).
5.7.2 Issues for Environmental Assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE TEXTILES SECTOR
ISSUES SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACTS
Pressure on the natural resource base Extraction of raw materials
Water Consumption
Energy Consumption
Prospect of employment-influx of people
Unsustainable utilization of natural
resources
Pollution - water, soil, air Discharge of non-biodegradable
effluents from mills (dyes, acids, bases,
salts, detergents, wetting agents, sizes
and finishes)
Colour
chemical oxygen demand
mineral salts
foaming
Solid wastes e.g. fibre Unsightly, may cause anaerobic sludge
layers
Organic compounds e.g. starch with high
biological oxygen demands
Increase cost of sewer discharge
Anaerobic conditions in receiving streams
Insecticides, pesticides Toxic to bacterial & aquatic life
Sensitive ecosystems / species Structure & layout of industrial plant &
roads
Barrier to migration & dispersal-isolation
& extinction
Expropriate important areas from fauna &
flora
Operation of industrial plant & associated
infrastructure
Threaten vulnerable, or conservation
worthy species
Maintenance of the historical, cultural, or
religious landscape
Intrusion in the landscape-
Migration of people
Negative impact on aesthetics & scenic
value
Vandalisation of unprotected relics
Way of life Labour Women & child labour
Change in power structures
Employment: Rural-urban migration Slum settlements,
urbanisation, conflicts between
newcomers & old residents
Strain on community services
Changes in land-use
Competition between land-uses Industry requires a large amount of land Conflicts with existing land-use and land
tenure system
Economy Initiation of other activities Stimulate secondary development
Interference with other economic sectors Retard other economic activities
Human safety Explosions, fires e.g. manufacture of
chemicals
Injury, death
Human health Noise Hearing impairment
Hazardous chemicals Toxic
5.7.3 Recommendations for Environmental Assessment
Industry to be sited at a sufficient distance from environmentally sensitive areas
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Environmental monitoring during construction and operation
Implement an environmental management system that ensures environmental
responsibility at all levels
Utilize environmentally friendly technologies
Implement cleaner production strategy - alternative products, production processes,
raw materials, energy sources, prevent or reduce waste, waste recycling, re-use
Introduce water and energy saving measures
Discharge points should be located downstream of supply sources of drinking water
Monitor volume and composition of discharges regularly
International Association for Research and testing in the Field of Textile Ecology
(Oeko -Tex) have developed European standards
Computerised measurement and dosing of chemicals & dyestuff
Ensure that sensitive environments, and residential areas will not be affected by
noise, especially at night
Reliable information system and a mechanism for labelling, handling, and stocking of
dangerous substances
Safety procedures to be understood well
Maintain safety equipment
Rehabilitation upon closure of industry
Training programme to assist labour force in adapting to an industrial way of life
5.8 Hydropower generation
5.8.1 Background
Ethiopia is one of the few African countries with the potential to produce hydroelectric and
geothermal power. As of mid-1991, however, no comprehensive assessment of this
potential was available, although some estimates indicate that the total potential could be as
much as 143 billion kilowatts. The main sources of this potential were thought to be the
Abay (Blue Nile, 79.9 billion kilowatts), the Shebele (21.6 billion kilowatts), and the Omo
(16.1 billion kilowatts). The remaining 25.9 billion kilowatts would come from rivers such as
the Tekeze, Awash, Baro, Genale and Mereb.
Electric power production in 1985/86 totalled 998.7 million kilowatts-hours, 83 percent of
which was produced by hydroelectric power installations. The regional electrical distribution
system includes and interconnected system and a self-contained system. By 1988 most
power generating sources, including all major hydroelectric power plants, were
interconnected in a power grid.
It is envisaged that hydropower will continue to be the dominant power source in Ethiopia.
The construction of more hydropower generating infrastructure is likely to occur along many
of the major rivers. These projects impact on a large spatial area and there impacts are felt
both upstream and downstream. For this reason, it is imperative that the impacts of
hydropower generation are carefully considered.
5.8.2 Issues for environmental assessment
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN HYDROPOWER GENERATION PROJECTS
ISSUES SOURCES/CAUSESS IMPACT
Impacts on livelihood
Water utilisation
Regulation of the water regime Decrease in fish catches
Transportation difficulties because of
low flow and river morphology changes
Flooding of agricultural land
Erosion of fertile river banks
Pollution of drinking water sources
Decreased water supply downstream
due to power-release policies
Intrusive impact on social systems in the
project area Involuntary resettlement
Induced development
Involuntary resettlement has been
treated as a separate issue (refer to
section 6.10)
Population influx may lead to social
conflict
Increased pressure on services and
infrastructure
Health and safety Stagnant water
Efficiency of dams
Spread of waterborne diseases
Accidental death through dam collapse
Encroachment into the natural
environment
Induced development Access routes may increase human
contact with natural areas, increasing
resource use, fire and erosion potential
Access encourages invasion and
competition from introduced plants, feral
animals and parasitic organisms
Change in water regime
Downstream water user rights
Disruption of river functioning
Regulation of water flow
Introduction of pollutants and salts into
the water
Trapping of sediments and nutrients in
dams and reservoirs due to decreased
current velocity
Decrease in sediment and nutrient
supply downstream which affects
agriculture
Disturbance of the river’s natural
processes of erosion and deposition -
increased erosion downstream
Loss of water through increased
evaporation
Decrease in downstream water supply
due to diversions and water transfers
Creation of stratification of the water
temperature in the dam
Development of acidic conditions in
anaerobic conditions from a change in
the bacterial population of the water
Increased concentration of pollutants
and salts in dam
Eutrophication of water bodies
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN HYDROPOWER GENERATION PROJECTS
ISSUES SOURCES/CAUSESS IMPACT
Damage to the natural environment
Pollution
Aesthetics
Construction operations
Waste production in temporary
settlements
Location of borrow areas and borrow
pits may increase soil erosion or disturb
sensitive environments
Air and water pollution may be created
by construction equipment, earth
movement
Waste disposal from temporary
settlements
Social conflict between residents of the
area and temporary workers
Siting of contractor facilities and other
infrastructure which might destroy the
natural landscape
Noise pollution
Encroachment of hydropower generating
infrastructure on the natural environment
Barrier impact of dams and reservoirs
built for hydropower generation
Damage to sensitive ecosystems
Disturbance of fauna and flora
Damage to aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems
Alteration of a free-flowing riverine
habitat into a lacustrine habitat
Disruption of ecosystem functioning
especially riparian ecosystems
Obstruction of migratory pathways for
fauna and flora
Decline in fisheries and
breeding/spawning areas along rivers
due to a curtailment of flooding
Explosive growth of floating or rooted
macrophytes which may impede
navigation, fishing or prevent turbine
operation
Decay of plants in anaerobic conditions
may lead to the formation of H2S gas
Changes in riparian communities to tree-
dominated vegetation
Introduction of exotic fish and plant
species which out compete indigenous
species in the changed environment
Siting of hydropower infrastructure Aesthetics
Tourism
Loss of river Sources/Causes which
could fill tourism potential
Visual impact of siting of hydroelectric
generation stations, lakes and
transmission lines
Loss of sites of archaeological/cultural
significance
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5.8.3. Recommendations for environmental management
Siting of hydropower generating infrastructure must give consideration to :
sites of cultural/historical significance
sensitive ecosystems
places of religious/scientific value
tectonic activity
vulnerability of the area to erosion
Efforts must be made to minimize resettlement
A resettlement plan must be developed
Preference must be given to the employment of local people
Areas of rich or valuable biodiversity must be protected
Water regulation should consider the needs of downstream users
5.9 Irrigation projects
5.9.1 Background
Irrigation projects are closely tied in with agricultural and hydropower generation. By virtue of
these two facts, it is expected that many irrigation projects will be developed in Ethiopia,
especially under the ADLI policy.
5.9.2 Issues for environmental assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Impact on downstream users
Impact on groundwater users
Lowering/ rise of the ground water
table
Regulation of water flow
patterns
Water extraction for
irrigation
Poor water distribution
systems
Changes in low flow which negatively impact on
downstream users
Uncontrolled flooding causing damage downstream
Lowering of the ground water table Impact of lowered
ground water on water consumption by humans,
animals and plant life in the area
Effect of lowered ground water on springs
Potential rise of the water table through low irrigation
efficiency
Decreased water quality
Pollution concentration
Ground water salinisation
Change in river morphology
Water diversion for
irrigation
Agrochemical use
Pesticide use
Fertilizer use
Increase in pollution concentration because of
decreased low flow
Accumulation of toxic substances from increased
pesticide use
High levels of nitrates in the water from agrochemicals
Creation of anaerobic conditions through the decay of
organic substances
Saline ground water caused by water logged conditions
Poor saline drainage in areas of flat topography
Saline intrusions into fresh water systems
Impact of irrigation canals on river morphology
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Soil salinisation Fertilizers
Artificial methods of
watering to crops
Potential for soil salinisation to occur through :
introduction of salts in irrigated water
contribution of artificial fertilizers
rise in saline ground water
creation of a “humidity/salinity bridge” by a change
from rainfed to irrigation crops
change in soil properties such as damage to soil
structure
Soil structural collapse in specific soil types due to
accumulation of salts
Lowering of pH and accumulation of dangerous metals
by leached metals, released through a change from
rainfed to irrigation crops
Erosion
Sedimentation
Abstraction of water Impact of sediment transport on reservoir and
abstraction points downstream eg. blockage of canals
Change in river morphology from increases/decreases
in the sediment load
Soil susceptibility to runoff and erosion increased by
wetting of the land
Sensitive ecosystems
Animal migration
Habitat functioning
Disturbance of the natural
environment
Induced settlement
Changes in the aquatic ecosystems
Impact on sensitive or valuable ecosystems and
pollution sensitive organisms
Induced animal migration
Increased pressure for natural resources by induced
settlement of farmers
Impairment of wetland functioning with repercussions
for water quality downstream
Social conflict
Change in the socio-economic
state of the people
Induced development Change in the income and amenity of people
Increased human migration and settlement in the area
Changes in marketing and physical infrastructure
generated by the irrigation scheme
Increase in disease problems
Accidents
Health and safety Changes in movement of water, temperature or other
factors creating favourable conditions for pests and
disease-bearing organisms
Introduction of disease-bearing organisms into
previously unaffected areas through water distribution
patterns
Increased pressure on sanitation services
Increase in farming accidents
5.9.3. Recommendations for environmental management
The siting of an irrigation scheme must be decided so to avoid disturbance or
destruction of:
Sensitive or biologically rich ecosystems
Sites of cultural/historical significance
Settlements of religious or scientific value
Areas with flat topography or with high water tables that are at risk from
salinisation
Adequate health care facilities must be provided
On-going user involvement in the development of the project must be
encouraged
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Capacity of irrigation canals to transport sediment loads must be determined
Measures must be taken to prevent low irrigation efficiency caused by poor
water distribution or a poor rain system
management
Flood control measures should be implemented
5.10 Resettlement Projects
5.10.1 Background
Resettlement is a highly controversial activity that has implications for the socio-economic,
natural and political environments. Within the Ethiopian context, resettlement has been
associated with dam and reservoir projects, and more controversially with drought and famine
victims. At the height of drought and famine in Ethiopia in 1984, programs were implemented
to relocate millions of people from drought-stricken areas in order to combat drought, avert
famine and increase agricultural productivity. This process was highly criticized and the
program was a failure. The lasting implication of these projects was a negative image of
resettlement projects. Whilst resettlement has undeniable implications for change, these
projects can bring about positive changes for communities and the environment
The development of hydroelectric power in Ethiopia, in keeping with the Agricultural
Development Led Industrialisation will most likely require resettlement of people in the future.
For this reason, proper assessment, planning and management of resettlement projects is
essential. Due to the sensitivity associated with resettlement projects the following description
is simply an overview of the potential environmental issues associated with resettlement.
Resettlement should not be seen in isolation of the other development sectors. It has been
separated in this document to highlight its importance in terms of environmental assessment
projects in Ethiopia.
5.10.2 Issues for environmental assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN RESETTLEMENT PROJECTS
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Social adjustment by the
resettled community
Impacts on areas surrounding
the project site
Movement of people out of an
area
Production systems are dismantled
People are impoverished when their
productive assets or income sources are lost
Relocation to environments where people’s
productive skills are less applicable
Community institutions and social networks
are weakened
Kin groups are dispersed
Cultural identity, traditional authority and the
potential for mutual help are diminished
Loss of access to natural resources
Pressure on financial resources of individual
families
Huge financial implications for project owner
Losses arising from sentimental attachment
or aesthetic preference
Disrupted access to places of cultural
property e.g. pilgrimage centres and places
of worship
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN RESETTLEMENT PROJECTS
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Relocation of cemeteries
Pressure on public infrastructure and social
services in host area
Homelessness
Marginalisation
Loss of access to common property and
shared resources
Decreased food security
Social disarticulation
Loss of integrity and identity of indigenous
cultures
Dependence on government
Increased government control over large
segments of society
Neglect of people not resettled
Stagnation of areas surrounding site from
which resettlement occurred
Under-utilization of resources in areas
surrounding project site
Increased pressure on infrastructure and
services in new settlement
Change in the host community Influx of new people into an area Greater competition for resources
Adverse impacts on host communities
Changes in community structures
Conflict between resettled and host
populations
Spread of disease and pests Health and safety Erosion of health status
Psychological stress relating to displacement
and loss of community identity
Increased spread of disease through high
population density and poor health and
sanitation facilities
Introduction of new diseases and pests to
the resettled and host communities
Overutilization of natural
resources
Pollution
Soil damage
Habitat loss
Encroachment into the natural
environment
Consumption of natural
resources
Impact of increased population density in
relocation area
Encroachment into natural environments
Transportation capacity put under pressure
Problems with access to potable water
Overgrazing leading to nutrient-deficiencies
and soil damage
Soil erosion through land clearance
Pollution of the environment by exceeding
the capacity of natural services
Deforestation
Loss of biological diversity through
encroachment and increased reliance
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5.10.3 Recommendations for environmental management
Minimize resettlement as far as possible
Carry out detailed plans for compensation and resettlement
Discourage entrepreneurial intervention that might deplete the level of compensation
reaching the resettlement people
Develop a long term support program for the resettled
Encourage public participation and ensure that displaced people are informed about the
options and rights
Provide structures for consultation with the host communities and local government and
for conflict resolution
Select replacement sights with a combination of productive potential, locational
advantage and other factors at least equivalent to the advantages of the old site
Ensure that adequate infrastructure and services are provided in the host community to
meet the needs of the resettled community
The carrying capacity of the host area must be determined
Provide people displaced by a project with the means to improve, or at least restore,
their former living standards, earning capacity, and production levels
As far as possible provide land-for-land compensation
Resettlement must ensure equal rights to women, children and indigenous populations
and other vulnerable groups
Create a long term monitoring system with the establishment of performance criteria
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APPENDIX 1 : SCHEDULE OF ACTIVITIES
Schedule 1. Projects which may have adverse and significant environmental impacts, and
may, therefore, require full EIA.
A. Social infrastructure and service
1. Rural and Urban water supply and sanitation
- Construction of dams, impounding reservoirs with a surface area of 100 hectors
- Ground water development for industrial, agricultural or urban water supply of greater
than 4000 m3 /day
- Canalization and flood-relief works (large scale)
- Drainage Plans in towns close to water bodies
2. Waste Disposal
- Waste disposal installations for the incineration, chemical treatment or land fill of toxic,
hazardous and dangerous wastes
- Installation for the disposal of industrial waste
- Land fill site for waste disposal in major urban centre
3. Urban Development
- Hospital and educational facilities (large scale)
- Housing development covering an area of 50 hectares or more
- Designation of new towns, village and residential area
- Establishment of industrial estates
- Establishment or expansion of recreational areas in mountain areas, Parks and game
reserves
- Shopping centres, complexes and establishment of open air market area in major urban
centres
- Establishment of bus and rail terminal
B. Economic infrastructure and services
4. Transport
- Major urban roads
- Rural road programmes
- Rail infrastructure and railways
- Airports with a basic runway length of 2,100 m or more
- Trans-regional and International high way
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5. Energy
- High power transmission line
- Large bio-mass energy using plants
- Thermal power stations and other combustion installations with a heat output of 100
Mega Watts or more
- Hydroelectric power having dams over 15 meters high and ancillary structures covering
a total area in excess of 20 hectares and/or reservoirs with a surface area in excess of
250 hectares
- Construction of combined cycle power station
C. Production Sector
6. Agriculture
- Land reclamation (large scale)
- Agricultural Projects necessitating the resettlement of 100 families or more
- Development of agricultural estates covering an area of 500 hectares or more involving
changes in type of agricultural use
- Use of new pesticide or fertilizer other than those recognized or specified by the
concerned government body
- Agricultural mechanization and other services (large scale)
- Introduction of new breed, species of crops, seeds or animals
7. Irrigation and Drainage
- Construction of dams and man made lakes and artificial enlargement of lakes with
surface area of 250 hectares or more
- Surface water fed irrigation projects covering more than 100 hectares
- Ground water fed irrigation projects more than 100 hectares
- River diversions and water transfers between catchment
- Drainage area of Forestry wetlands or wildlife habitat covering an area of 10 hectares or
more
- Dams and man made impoundment in low land areas covering an area of 100 hectares
or more
8. Forestry
- Conversion of hill forest land to other land use
- Logging or conversion of forest land to other land use with in the catchment area of
reservoirs used for municipal water supply, irrigation or hydropower generation or in
areas adjacent to parks
- Logging with special emphasis for endangered tree species
- Conversion of mangrove swamps for industry, housing or agricultural use covering an
area of more than 10 hectares
- Clearing mangrove swamps on islands adjacent to parks
- Large scale afforestation/reforestation mono-culture forest plantation projects which use
exotic free species
- Conversion of forest areas which have a paramount importance of biodiversity
conservation to other land use
- Resettlement programs in natural forest and wood land areas.
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9. Livestock
- Large scale open range rearing of cattle, horses, sheep etc
- Large scale livestock production in Urban area
- Large scale slaughter house construction
10. Fisheries
- commercial fisheries
- introduction of exotic species
11. Minerals extraction and processing
Large scale Mining Operation
Which the annual run of mine ore exceed:-
a. Gold, platinum and silver and other precious and semi precious minerals.
- 100,000m3 for placer operation
- 75,000 tons for primary deposit mining
b. Metallic minerals such as Iron, Lead, Copper, Nickel
- 150,000 tons for open pit mining
- 75,000 tons for under ground mining operations
c. Industrial minerals such as kaolin, bentonite, diatomite, dolomite, quartz and coal
- 120,000 tons
d. Construction Minerals
- 80,000m3 for sand, gravel, pumice, stone, clay and the like
- 10,000m3 for dimension stones such as marble and granite
e. Mineral Water
- 20,000m3
f. Thermal Water
- 2,000,000m3 for bathing, recreational and medicinal purposes
- 25 Mega Watt, or geothermal steam capable of generating equivalent power for
industrial and other purposes
g. Extraction of salts from brines
- 14,000 tons
h. Large scale quarry site of construction minerals near to large population centre.
12. Petroleum
- Oil and gas fields development
- Construction of off shore pipe lines in excess of 50 km in length
- Construction of oil and gas separation, processing, handling and storage facilities
- Construction of product depots for storage of petroleum, gas or diesel (excluding service
stations) which are located with in 3 km of any commercial or residential areas and
which have a combined storage capacity of 60,000 barrels or more
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13. Industry
- Petrochemicals - (all size)
- Chemical where production capacity of each product or of combined products is greater
than 50 tons/day
- Installations for the production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, including smelting,
refining, drawing rolling and surface treatment (all size)
- Installations for the extraction and processing of asbestos and cement products
- Manufacture or transport of pesticides or other hazardous and/or toxic materials
- Manufacturing of agricultural chemicals in puts (all sizes)
- Agro industry (large scale) such as sugar cane industries
- Beverage industries (large scale)
- Textile industries (large scale)
- Manufacture of rubber and plastic products (large scale)
- Manufacture of glass and glass products (large scale)
- Manufacture of electrical machinery apparatus, appliances and supplies
- Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture (large scale)
- Tannery and leather dressing factories (large scale)
Schedule 2. Projects whose type, scale or other relevant characteristics have potential to
cause some significant environmental impacts but not likely to warrant an
environmental impact study.
A. Social infrastructure and services
1. Rural and Urban water supply and sanitation
- Rural water supply and sanitation
- Land drainage (small scale)
- Sewerage system
2. Waste disposal
- Recycling plant (small scale)
3. Urban development
- Housing and commercial projects
- Cemetery site and establishment of religious institutions
B. Economic Infrastructure and Services
4. Transport
- Upgrading or rehabilitation of major rural roads
- Airports with basic runway length less than 2,100m
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
5. Energy
- Thermal power stations and other combustion installations with a heat output of less
than 300 mega watts
- Electricity transmission lines
- Hydropower projects having dam height less than 15 meters and reservoirs with a
surface area less than 250 hectares
C. Production sector
6. Agriculture
- Wide spread introduction of fertilizers
- Pest control programmes (large scale)
7. Irrigation
- Surface water fed irrigation projects covering less than 100 hectares
- Ground water fed irrigation projects covering less than 100 hectares
8. Forestry
- Protected forest reserves (large scale)
- Agro forestry (large scale)
- Productive forest reserves (large scale)
9. Livestock
- Intensive rearing of cattle (>50 heads); pigs (>100 heads); or poultry (>500 heads)
- Establishment of animal feed (large scale)
- Livestock fattening projects (large scale)
- Bee keeping projects (large scale)
10. Fisheries
- Artesian fisheries (large scale)
- Introduction of new harvesting technology
11. Mineral extraction and processing
- Small scale mining operations
12. Industry
- Agro-industries, including manufacturing of vegetable and animal oils and fats
- Manufacture, packing and canning of animal, fish and vegetable products
- Industries utilizing hazardous materials (small scale)
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
Schedule 3. Projects which would have no impact and does not require environmental
impact assessment
A. Social infrastructure and services
- Educational facilities (small scale)
- Audio visual production
- Teaching facilities and equipment
- Training
- Medical centre (small scale)
- Medical supplies and equipment
- Nutrition
- Family planning
B. Economic infrastructure and services
- Telecommunication
- Research
C. Production Sector
i Irrigation
- Surface water fed irrigation projects covering less than 50 hectares
- Ground water fed irrigation projects covering less than 50 hectares
ii Agriculture
- All small scale agricultural activities
iii Forestry
- Protected forest reserves (small scale)
- Productive forest reserves (small scale)
iv Livestock
- Rearing of cattle (<50 heads); pigs (<100 heads), or poultry (<500 heads)
- Livestock fattening projects (small scale)
- Bees keeping projects (small scale)
v Fisheries
- Artesian fisheries (small scale)
vi Industry
- Agro industrial (small scale)
- Other small scale industries having no impact to the environment
vii Trade
- All trades except trade in endangered species and hazardous material
viii Financial assistance
- Programme assistance
- Non-project or special country support
- Food aid
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
ix Emergency Operations
- Assistance to refugee returned and displaced person
D. All projects involved in environmental enhancement programmes
All projects in environmentally sensitive areas should be treated as equivalent to Schedule 1
activities irrespective of the nature of the project. Sensitive areas may include:
- Land prone to erosion
- Land prone to desertification
- Areas which harbour protected, threatened or endangered species
- Areas of particular historic or archaeological interest
- Primary forests
- Wetland of national or international importance
- National Park and protected area
- Important landscape
- Religiously important area
APPENDIX 2 : EXAMPLE OF AN APPLICATION FORM
APPLICATION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AUTHORISATION Page: 1
For official use
only
Federal Application No:
Regional Date received:
Responsible official:
PARTICULARS OF APPLICANT
Name of applicant:
Contact Person:
Postal Address:
Postal Code:
Telephone No: Facsimile No:
Cellular No: E-mail address
TITLE OF PROPOSED ACTIVITY
DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED ACTIVITY
(please append if insufficient space provided)
LOCATION OF PROPOSED ACTIVITY
Region:
Nearest town:
Name of property(s):
Extent of property(s):
APPLICATION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AUTHORISATION Page: 2
PROBLEMATIC ISSUES IDENTIFIED
(please append if insufficient space provided)
CONSULTANT
I propose to make use of the following consultant:
Name of consultant:
Contact Person:
Postal Address:
Postal Code:
Telephone No: Facsimile No:
Cellular No: E-mail address
SIGNATURES
Applicant: Date: Place:
Witness: Date: Place:
Witness: Date: Place:
APPENDIX 3 : STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES FOR WATER AND AIR OF RELEVANCE
IN ETHIOPIA
SOUTH AFRICAN WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
AND GUIDELINES FOR DOMESTIC USE
DETERMINAND SABS 241 SPECIFICATIONS * DWAF WATER
QUALITY
GUIDELINES **
UNITS
Recommended
limit
Maximum
allowable limit
Target water quality
range
Turbidity 1 5 36159 NTU
Colour 20 - 15 Pt-Co
units
Odour and taste not objectionable not objectionable 1 TON
pH 6.0-9.0 5.5-9.5 6.0-9.0 pH units
Conductivity 70 300 - mS/m
Total Hardness 20-300 - 50-100 mg/l as
CaCO3
Calcium - - 0-32 mg/l
Magnesium 70 100 0 mg/l as
Mg
Sodium 100 400 0-100 mg/l
Potassium - - 0-50 mg/l
Chloride 250 600 0-100 mg/l
Sulphate 200 600 0-200 mg/l as
SO4=
Ammonia - - 0-1.0 mg/l
Nitrate and nitrite 6 10 36310 mg/l N
Dissolved
Organic Carbon
- - 36279 mg C/l
Fluoride 1 1.5 0-1.0 mg/l
Zinc 1 5 36218 mg/l
Aluminium - - 0-0.15 mg/l
Arsenic 100 300 0 ug/l
Cadmium 10 20 36279 ug/l
Copper 0.5 1 36159 mg/l
Chromium (VI) - - 0-0.05 mg/l
Cyanide 0.2 0.3 - mg/l
Iron 0.1 1 0-0.1 mg/l
Lead 0.05 0.1 0-0.01 mg/l
Manganese 0.05 1 0-0.05 mg/l
Mercury 5 10 36159 ug/l
Phenolic
compounds
5 10 36159 ug/l
Selenium 0.02 0.05 - mg/l
Total coliform
bacteria
0 5 36279 Counts/
100ml
Faecal coliform
bacteria
0 0 0 Counts/
100ml
Standard Plate
Count
100 - 0-100 Counts/
1ml
Coliphages - - 36159 Counts/
100ml
* South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) 241 - 1984 : Specification for water for domestic
supplies
**Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) - South African Water Quality Guidelines,
Volume 1 : Domestic Water Use, Second edition, 1996
SOUTH AFRICAN GROUNDWATER QUALITY STANDARDS
AND GUIDELINES FOR DOMESTIC USE
DETERMINAND
SABS 241
SPECIFICATIONS *
DWAF WATER
QUALITY
GUIDELINES **
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR BOREHOLE
WATER FOR POTABLE USE ***
UNITS
Recommen
ded limit
Maximum
allowable
limit
Target water
quality range
Class 0 Class 1 Class 11 Class 111
Turbidity 1 5 36159 - - - - NTU
Colour 20 - 15 - - - - Pt-Co units
Odour and taste not
objectionabl
e
not
objectionabl
e
1 - - - - TON
pH 6.0-9.0 5.5-9.5 6.0-9.0 6.0-9.0 5.0-9.5 4.5 to 9.5-10 <4 to >10 pH units
Conductivity 70 300 - 0-70 70-150 150-370 > 370 mS/m
Total Hardness 20-300 - 50-100 - - - - mg/l as
CaCO3
Total Dissolved Solids - - - 0-450 450-1000 1000-2450 > 2450 mg/l
Calcium - - 0-32 - - - - mg/l
Magnesium 70 100 0 0 30-70 70-100 > 100 mg/l as Mg
Sodium 100 400 0-100 0-100 100-200 200-400 > 400 mg/l
Potassium - - 0-50 - - - - mg/l
Chloride 250 600 0-100 0-100 100-200 200-600 > 600 mg/l
Sulphate 200 600 0-200 0-200 200-400 400-600 > 600 mg/l as SO4=
Ammonia - - 0-1.0 - - - - mg/l
Nitrate and nitrite 6 10 36310 36279 36438 36452 > 20 mg/l N
Dissolved Organic
Carbon
- - 36279 - - - - mg C/l
Fluoride 1 1.5 0-1.0 0-1.0 1.0-1.5 1.5-3.5 > 3.5 mg/l
Zinc 1 5 36218 0-3 3-5 5-10 > 10 mg/l
Aluminium - - 0-0.15 - - - - mg/l
Arsenic 100 300 0 0-10 10-50 50-200 > 200 ug/l
Cadmium 10 20 36279 0-5 5-10 10-20 > 20 ug/l
Copper 0.5 1 36159 - - - - mg/l
Chromium (VI) - - 0-0.05 - - - - mg/l
Cyanide 0.2 0.3 - - - - - mg/l
Iron 0.1 1 0-0.1 0-0.1 0.1-0.2 0.2-2 > 2 mg/l
Lead 0.05 0.1 0-0.01 - - - - mg/l
Manganese 0.05 1 0-0.05 0-0.05 0.05-0.1 0.1-1 > 1 mg/l
Mercury 5 10 36159 - - - - ug/l
Phenolic compounds 5 10 36159 - - - - ug/l
Selenium 0.02 0.05 - - - - - mg/l
Total coliform bacteria 0 5 36279 - - - - Counts/
100ml
Faecal coliform bacteria 0 0 0 0 36159 36433 > 10 Counts/
100ml
Standard Plate Count 100 - 0-100 - - - - Counts/1ml
Coliphages - - 36159 - - - - Counts/
100ml
* South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) 241 - 1984 : Specification for water for domestic supplies
**Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) - South African Water Quality Guidelines, Volume 1 : Domestic Water Use, Second edition,
1996
*** Institute for Water Quality Studies (IWQS), Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 1996
Classification system for assessment of suitability of Borehole Water for potable use
(Institute for Water Quality Studies, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 1996)
Classification Levels with regards to health effects are divided into four classes as follows:
Class 0 : Ideal water quality suitable for life time use (multiple generation use) and has no detrimental health effects.
Class I : In this range of concentration the key constituents will only in rare instances cause detrimental effects on health either in the short
or long term, and is suitable for use for an entire lifetime. This is the class of safe water quality.
Class II : In this range of concentration, health effects may occur with long term use, but the short term detrimental health effects are either
mild or rare. This class is essentially the concentration acceptable for short term or emergency use.
Class III : This is the concentration where serious health effects may be anticipated, particularly in infants, with short term use. The water
quality in this class is not suitable for use unless an appropriate treatment process is used to remove the offending constituents,
thus changing the water quality to a safer class (ie, I or II).
The criteria used to classify a borehole in the specific classes are as follows:
If the concentration of any constituent for any sample for a specific borehole falls in Class III, the borehole is classified as a Class III
borehole.
If the concentration of any constituent for any sample for a specific borehole falls in Class II, and none in Class III, the borehole is classified
as a Class II borehole.
The upper value of Class I is used as the cut off value to determine whether a borehole would fall in Class I and also include Class 0 which
is the ideal water quality.
Note: This list is not comprehensive, and lists those constituents most commonly responsible for water quality problems in groundwater. Other
constituents may cause health effects.
SOUTH AFRICAN AIR QUALITY LIMITS
Maximum allowable concentration for the most common pollutants
POLLUTANT
GUIDELINE CONCENTRATION
Instant peaks 1-hour avg 24-hour avg 1-month avg annual avg UNITS
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.05 0.03 ppm
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.08 0.05 ppm
Ozone (O3) 0.25 0.12 - - - ppm
Particulate <10 micrometers (PM-10) - - 180 - 60 ug/m3
Lead (Pb) - - - 2.5 - ug/m3
NOX 104 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.2 ppm
Nitrous oxide (NO) 0.9 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.15 ppm
Total suspended solids (Hi-vol) - - 300 - 100 ug/m3
Smoke (from CSIR Soiling index) - - 250 - 100 ug/m3
ppm = parts per million
ug/m3 = parts per billion (ppb)
Dust fall-out (deposition):
Slight : less than 0.25 g/m2/day
Moderate : 0.25 to 0.50 g/m2/day
Heavy : 0.50 to 1.2 g/m2/day
Very heavy : more than 1.20 g/m2/day
(Above 24-hour limits not to be exceeded for more than 3 times per year)
USA EPA STANDARDS:
POLLUTANT
STANDARD VALUE
1-hour avg 3-hour avg 8-hour avg 24-hour avg Quarterly avg Annual
Arithmetic Mean
UNITS
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) - 0.5 - 0.14 - 0.03 ppm
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) - - - - - 0.053 ppm
Ozone (O3) 0.12 - 0.08 - - - ppm
Particulate <10 micrometers
(PM-10)
- - - 150 - 50 ug/m3
Particulate <2.5 micrometers
(PM-2.5)
- - - 65 - 15 ug/m3
Lead (Pb) - - - - 1.5 - ug/m3
Carbon monoxide (CO) 35 - 9 - - - ppm
WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (WHO) AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES FOR “CLASSICAL COMPOUNDS”:
POLLUTANT
GUIDELINE VALUE
1-hour avg 8-hour avg 24-hour avg Annual avg UNITS
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) - - 125 50 ug/m3
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 200 - 40 - ug/m3
Ozone (O3) - 120 - - ug/m3
Lead (Pb) - - - 0.5 ug/m3
Carbon monoxide (CO) 30 000 10 000 - - ug/m3
FINLAND AMBIENT AIR GUIDELINES:
POLLUTANT
GUIDELINE VALUE
1-hour avg 8-hour avg 24-hour avg Annual avg UNITS
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 250 - 80 20 ug/m3
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 150 - 70 30 ug/m3
Particulate <10 micrometers (PM-10) - - 70 - ug/m3
Carbon monoxide (CO) 20 8 - - ug/m3
Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) - - 120 50 ug/m3
BELGIUM AIR QUALITY STANDARDS:
POLLUTANT
GUIDELINE VALUE
1-hour avg 8-hour avg 24-hour avg Annual avg UNITS
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) - - 100-150 40-60 ug/m3
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 135-200 - - - ug/m3
Ozone (O3) 180-360 110 65 - ug/m3
Lead (Pb) - - - 2 ug/m3
AUSTRALIAN AMBIENT AIR QUALITY OBJECTIVES:
Air quality goals recommended by the National Health and Medical Research Council
POLLUTANT
GUIDELINE VALUE
1-hour avg 8-hour avg Quarterly avg Annual avg UNITS
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) - - - 60 ug/m3
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 320 - - - ug/m3
Ozone (O3) 240 - - - ug/m3
Lead (Pb) - - 1.5 - ug/m3
Carbon monoxide (CO) - 10 - - ug/m3
Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) - - - 90 ug/m3
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF THIS DOCUMENT
CHAPTER 2 : ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIA
2.1 Background
2.2 Legislative and Policy context
2.3 EIA Objectives and Principles
2.4 The Competent Agency
2.5 Scheduled activities
CHAPTER 3 : THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS
3.1 Roles and Responsibilities
3.1.1 Proponent
3.1.2 Consultant
3.1.3 Interested and affected parties
3.1.4 Competent Agency
3.2 Pre-screening consultation
3.3 Screening
3.4. Scoping
3.5 Environmental Impact Assessment
3.6 Record of decision and appeal
3.7 Conditions of approval
3.8. Auditing
CHAPTER 4 : STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES
ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA
CHAPTER 5 : ISSUES FOR SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN ETHIOPIA
5.1 Agriculture
5.1.1 Background
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
5.1.3. Recommendations for environmental management
5.2 Industry
5.2.1 Background
5.2.2 Issues for environmental assessment
5.2.3 Recommendations for Environmental Management
5.3 Transport
5.3.1 Background
5.3.2 Issues for environmental assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN TRANSPORT PROJECTS
5.3.3 Recommendations for environmental management
5.4 Mining
5.4.1 Background
5.4.2. Issues for Environmental Management
IMPACTS
5.4.3. Recommendations for environmental management
5.5 Dams and Reservoirs
5.5.1. Background
5.5.2 Issues for environmental assessment
5.5.3 Recommendations for environmental management
5.6 Tannery
5.6.1 Background
5.6.2 Issues for Environmental Assessment
5.6.3 Recommendations for Environmental Management
5.7 Textiles
5.7.1 Background
5.7.2 Issues for Environmental Assessment
5.7.3 Recommendations for Environmental Assessment
5.8 Hydropower generation
5.8.1 Background
5.8.2 Issues for environmental assessment
5.8.3. Recommendations for environmental management
5.9 Irrigation projects
5.9.1 Background
5.9.2 Issues for environmental assessment
5.9.3. Recommendations for environmental management
5.10 Resettlement Projects
5.10.1 Background
5.10.2 Issues for environmental assessment
5.10.3 Recommendations for environmental management
SIMPLIFIED EIA PROCEDURAL FLOW IN ETHIOPIA
IC submits proposal to undertake
aractity i Assessment Agencies
a
‘Assessinent Agencies decide whether the
proposal's acceplable a whether BIA s Tequred
Gecision
PP = Project Proponent
CA =CompetentAuthority
IG_= Independent Consultant
Eip = Environmental impact Report
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
GUIDELINE DOCUMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
ADDIS ABABA
MAY 2000
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AUTHORITY
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AUTHORITY
FINAL DRAFT
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
GUIDELINE DOCUMENT
ADDIS ABABA
JULY 2000
NOT FOR CITATION
This guidelines is still under development and shall be
binding after consensus is reached between the
Environmental Protection Authority and the
Environmental Units of Competent Sectoral Agencies
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT GUIDELINE DOCUMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF THIS DOCUMENT......................................1
CHAPTER 2 : ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIA...............3
2.1 Background........................................................................................................................ 3
2.2 Legislative and Policy context............................................................................................3
2.3 EIA Objectives and Principles............................................................................................6
2.4 The Competent Agency.....................................................................................................7
2.5 Scheduled activities...........................................................................................................8
CHAPTER 3 : THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS.............................11
3.1 Roles and Responsibilities...............................................................................................11
3.1.1 Proponent...........................................................................................................11
3.1.2 Consultant...........................................................................................................12
3.1.3 Interested and affected parties............................................................................12
3.1.4 Competent Agency..............................................................................................12
3.2 Pre-screening consultation...............................................................................................13
3.3 Screening......................................................................................................................... 13
3.4. Scoping............................................................................................................................ 14
3.5 Environmental Impact Assessment..................................................................................17
3.6 Record of decision and appeal.........................................................................................19
3.7 Conditions of approval.....................................................................................................20
3.8. Auditing................................................................................................................................ 21
CHAPTER 4 : STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES.........................................................................22
CHAPTER 5 : ISSUES FOR SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN
ETHIOPIA..................................................................................................................................... 24
5.1 Agriculture........................................................................................................................ 25
5.1.1 Background.........................................................................................................25
5.1.3. Recommendations for environmental management..............................................27
5.2 Industry............................................................................................................................ 28
5.2.1 Background.........................................................................................................28
5.2.2 Issues for environmental assessment.................................................................28
5.2.3 Recommendations for Environmental Management...........................................30
5.3 Transport.......................................................................................................................... 31
5.3.1 Background.........................................................................................................31
5.3.2 Issues for environmental assessment.................................................................31
5.3.3 Recommendations for environmental management............................................33
5.4 Mining.............................................................................................................................. 33
5.4.1 Background.........................................................................................................33
5.4.2. Issues for Environmental Management.................................................................34
5.4.3. Recommendations for environmental management..............................................35
5.5 Dams and Reservoirs......................................................................................................36
5.5.1. Background...........................................................................................................36
5.5.2 Issues for environmental assessment.................................................................37
5.5.3 Recommendations for environmental management............................................38
i
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT GUIDELINE DOCUMENT
5.6 Tannery............................................................................................................................ 38
5.6.1 Background.........................................................................................................38
5.6.2 Issues for Environmental Assessment................................................................39
5.6.3 Recommendations for Environmental Management...........................................40
5.7 Textiles............................................................................................................................ 41
5.7.1 Background.........................................................................................................41
5.7.2 Issues for Environmental Assessment................................................................41
5.7.3 Recommendations for Environmental Assessment.............................................42
5.8 Hydropower generation....................................................................................................42
5.8.1 Background.........................................................................................................42
5.8.2 Issues for environmental assessment.................................................................43
5.8.3. Recommendations for environmental management..............................................45
5.9 Irrigation projects.............................................................................................................45
5.9.1 Background.........................................................................................................45
5.9.2 Issues for environmental assessment.................................................................45
5.9.3. Recommendations for environmental management..............................................46
5.10 Resettlement Projects......................................................................................................47
5.10.1 Background.........................................................................................................47
5.10.2 Issues for environmental assessment.................................................................47
5.10.3 Recommendations for environmental management............................................49
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Schedule of activities
Appendix 2 Example of an application form
Appendix 3 Standards and guidelines for water and air of relevance in Ethiopia
ii
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT GUIDELINE DOCUMENT
ACRONYMS:
ADLI Agricultural Development Led Industry
CEA Cumulative Effects Assessment
CSE Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (South Africa)
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EM Environmental Management
EMP Environmental Management Plan
EMS Environmental Management System
EPE Environmental Policy of Ethiopia
ERA Ecological Risk Assessment
GVP Gross Value of Production
IAPs Interested & Affected Parties
IEM Integrated Environmental Management
ISO International Standards Organisation
PPP Policies, plans and programmes
RECC Regional Environmental Co-ordinationCouncil
SABS South African Bureau of Standards
SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment
SOE State of the environment
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
WHO World Health Organisation
iii
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT GUIDELINE DOCUMENT
TERMS USERD IN THE GUIDELINES:
Activity:
A development action, either planned or existing, that may result in environmental
impacts through pollution and/or resource use.
Affected environment
Those parts of the socio-economic and biophysical environment impacted on by the
development
Alternatives
Possible courses of action, in place of another, that would meet the same purpose and
need (of proposal). Alternatives can refer to any of the following but are not limited to:
alternative sites for development, alternative projects for a particular site, alternative site
layouts, alternative designs, alternative processes and materials. In EIA the so-called
“no action” alternative may also require investigation in certain circumstances.
Assessment
The process of collecting, organising, analysing, interpreting and communicating data
that are relevant to some decision.
Auditing
The process through which an EIA is inspected which then provides an opportunity and
mechanism to learn from experience and to refine project design and implementation
procedures.
Compliance
To act in accordance with the rules and regulations.
Development:
The act of altering or modifying resources in order to obtain potential benefits.
Environmental impact statement
A report describing the process of examining the environmental effects of a development
proposal, the expected impacts and the proposed mitigating measures.
Environmental aspect:
A human activity or environmental element
Environmental issue:
A concern felt by one of more parties about some existing, potential or perceived
environmental impact.
Environmental impact:
The degree of change in an environment resulting from the effect of an activity on the
environment, whether desirable or undesirable. Impacts may be the direct consequence
of an organisation’s activities or may be indirectly caused by them.
iv
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT GUIDELINE DOCUMENT
Environmental impact assessment (EIA):
A process of examining the environmental consequences of development.
Evaluation
The process of weighing information, the act of making value judgements or ascribing
values to data in order to reach a decision.
Informed decision-making
Decision relating to the impacts on the environment based upon the best applicable
knowledge available. In cases where a lack of information is evident, steps will be taken
to collect information necessary to assess the impacts and sustainable use of resources.
Interested party
Individuals or groups concerned with or affected by an activity and its consequences.
These include the authorities, local communities, investors, work force, customers and
consumers, environmental interest groups and the general public.
Impact
The effect of an activity on the environment whether desirable or undesirable. Impacts
may be the direct consequence of an organisation’s activities or may be indirectly
caused by them.
Irreversible impact
When the character, diversity or reproductive capacity of an environment is permanently
lost.
Land use
The activities that take place within a given area or space.
Mitigation
Measures taken to prevent, reduce or rectify impacts of a particular project of the
evaluation process concludes that the impacts are significant.
Monitoring
The repetitive and continued observation, measurement and evaluation of environmental
data to follow changes over a period of time to assess the efficiency of control
measures.
Negative impact
A change that reduces the quality of the environment (for example, by reducing species
diversity and the reproductive capacity of the ecosystem, by damaging health, property
or by causing nuisance).
Participation
Interested and affected individuals and groups will have an opportunity to participate in
decisions about ways in which environmental concerns are addressed.
Positive impact
A change that improves the quality of the environment (for example, by increasing
species diversity and the reproductive capacity of the ecosystem, by removing
nuisances or improving amenities).
v
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT GUIDELINE DOCUMENT
Pristine
Undisturbed natural landscape.
Pro-active:
Taking action in anticipation of a problem rather than in reaction to the problem.
Rehabilitation
Restoration of landscape more or less to is former scenic appearance.
Scoping
Scoping involves the identification and “narrowing down” of potential environmental
impacts to ensure that the EIA focuses in key issues for decision-making.
Screening
The process whereby the responsible department(s) decides whether or not a project
requires assessment, and the level of assessment that may be required.
Scheduled activities
Development actions that are likely to result in significant environmental impacts.
Significant impact
An impact that, by its magnitude, duration or intensity alters an important aspect of the
environment.
Value judgement
A statement or opinion which is not capable of being falsified by comparison with fact.
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CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF THIS
DOCUMENT
This Guide to Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) document provides a
background to environmental impact assessment and environmental
management in Ethiopia. In essence the document aims at being a reference
material to ensure effective environmental assessment and management
practice in Ethiopia for all parties who engage in the process. In this regard the
document aims towards:
• Providing all interested parties with a consistent approach to EIA
(including:
project proponents, consultants, communities, NGO’s and the
authorities);
• Providing background information for the context of EIA in Ethiopia;
• Assisting proponents in identifying their EIA responsibilities;
• Assisting community and NGO groups in realising their environmental
rights with
regard to EIA;
• Assisting the authorities in determining their roles and responsibilities as
decision-makers in the EIA process; and
• Assisting in decision-making with regard to cost and benefits of
proposed
development projects.
The document details the required procedures for conducting an EIA in
Ethiopia and the requirements for environmental management. The document
has been developed to support the ongoing development of environmental
legislation. These requirements are presented on a step-by-step basis. In
addition, the document specifies tools that may be considered when engaging
in the EIA process. Reference is made to the legislation and policies that
potential investors and developers must comply in Ethiopia and key issues for
environmental assessment in specific development sectors are detailed for
consideration.
This document has been derived in parts from concepts provided in previous
documents prepared by the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA), in terms
of the Ethiopian Environmental Policy. The EPA have prepared six volumes of
Environmental Assessment Guideline documents which provide for EIA
procedure as well as for EIA in specific development sectors in the country
(including: agriculture, industry, transport, mining and dams and reservoirs).
These documents were revised following a workshop with stakeholders held in
March-April 1999.
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In order to meet these objectives the document has been structured into five
Chapters, as follows:
Chapter 1 describes the purpose and aims of the document
Chapter 2 provides a background to EIA in Ethiopia through describing the
need for an integrated process and the legislative requirements. This sections
includes an overview of the responsibilities of the Competent Agency and
identifies those projects that must be subjected to an EIA.
Chapter 3 describes the Ethiopian approach to EIA. It is a comprehensive
description of each of the phases within an EIA process and identifies the roles
and responsibilities of each party engaging in the EIA process.
Chapter 4 provides an overview of environmental standards that may be
applied in Ethiopia and details how these standards and guidelines may be
established.
Chapter 5 identifies the issues and impacts that may be associated with
development in some of the key sectors in Ethiopia
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CHAPTER 2 : ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND
MANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIA
2.1 Background
The environment has not featured on the development agenda in the past
since the project evaluation and decision-making mechanisms have focussed
on short-term technical feasibility and economic benefits. Past development
practices have not anticipated, eliminated or mitigated potential environmental
problems early in the planning process. This has resulted in a situation where
the country experiences a seriously degraded natural environment. Further
development has the potential to further damage fragile environmental
systems.
In order to ensure that future developments in Ethiopia are sustainable it is
essential to integrate environmental concerns into development activities.
Environmental assessment and management have been recognised as
effective tools for facilitating the inclusion of the principles of sustainable
development into development proposals.
2.2 Legislative and Policy context
The Constitution (adopted on the 21st of August 1995) requires current and
future legislation and the conduct of government to conform to a Bill of Rights.
The concept of sustainable development and environmental rights are
entrenched in the Rights of Peoples in Ethiopia through Articles 43 and 44
which state the following:
Article 43:- The Right to Development
1. The Peoples of Ethiopia as a whole, and each Nation, Nationality and
People in Ethiopia in particular have the right to improved living
standards and to sustainable development.
2. Nationals have the right to participate in national development and, in
particular, to be consulted with respect to policies and projects affecting
their community.
3. All international agreements and relations concluded, established or
conducted by the State shall protect and ensure Ethiopia’s right to
sustainable development.
4. The basic aim of development activities shall be to enhance the
capacity of citizens for development and to meet their basis needs.
Article 44:- Environment Rights
1. All persons have the right to live in a clean and healthy environment.
2. All persons who have been displaced or whose livelihoods have been
adversely affected as a result of State programmes have the right to
commensurate monetary or alternative means of compensation,
including relocation with adequate State assistance.
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The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) was established in response to
the requirements of the Constitution (Proclamation No 9/1995). The objective
of the EPA is to:
“...ensure that all matters pertaining to the country’s social and economic
development activities are carried out in a manner that will protect the welfare
of human beings as well as sustainably protect, develop and utilise the
resource bases on which they depend for survival” (Federal Negarit Gazeta of
the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia - Proclamation No 9/1995)
In addition to the EPA, the Investment Authority has responsibilities towards the
environment. These are captured in the Federal Negarit Gazeta - Proclamation
No 37/1996) which states that “...the intended investment activity would not be
convening the operational laws of the country and that, in particular, it complies
with conditions stipulated in environmental protection laws...”.
Section 2.4 provides a more detailed description of the roles and
responsibilities of the EPA as the Competent Agency.
As one of its first responsibilities, the EPA (in conjunction with the Ministry of
Economic Development and Cooperation) developed the Environmental Policy
of Ethiopia (EPE) which was adopted in April 1997. The EPE supports
Constitutional Rights through its guiding principles which are:
a. Every person has the right to live in a healthy environment;
b. Sustainable environmental conditions and economic production
systems are impossible in the absence of peace and personal security.
This shall be assured through the acquisition of power by communities
to make their own decisions on matters that affect their life and
environment;
c. The development, use and management of renewable resources shall
be based on sustainability;
d. The use of non-renewable resources shall be minimized and where
possible their availability extended (e.g. through recycling);
e. Appropriate and affordable technologies which use renewable and non-
renewable resources efficiently shall be adopted, adapted, developed
and disseminated;
f. When a compromise between short-term economic growth and long-
term environmental protection is necessary, then development activities
shall minimise degrading and polluting impacts on ecological and life
support systems. When working out a compromise, it is better to err on
the side of caution to the extent possible, as rehabilitating a degraded
environment is very expensive, and bringing back a species that has
gone extinct is impossible;
g. Full environmental and social costs (or benefits foregone or lost) that
may result through damage to resources or the environment as a result
of degradation or pollution shall be incorporated into public and private
sector planning and accounting, and decisions shall be based on
minimising and covering these costs;
h. Market failures with regard to the pricing of natural, human-made and
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cultural resources, and failures in regulatory measures shall be
corrected through the assessment and establishment of user fees,
taxes, tax reductions or incentives;
i. Conditions shall be created that will support community and individual
resources to sustainably manage their own environment and resources;
j. As key actors in natural resource use and management, women shall
be treated equally with men and empowered to be totally involved in
policy, programme and project design, decision-making and
implementation;
k. The existence of a system which ensures uninterrupted continuing
access to the same piece(s) of land and resource creates conducive
conditions for sustainable natural resource management;
l. Social equity shall be assured particularly in resource use;
m. Regular and accurate assessment and monitoring of environmental
conditions shall be undertaken and the information widely disseminated
within the population;
n. Increased awareness and understanding of environmental and resource
issues shall be promoted, by government officials and by the
population, and the adoption of a “conservation culture” in
environmental matters among all levels of society shall be encouraged;
o. Local, regional and international environmental interdependence shall
be recognised;
p. Natural resource and environmental management activities shall be
integrated laterally across all sectors and vertically among all levels of
organisation;
q. The wealth of crop and domestic animal as well as micro-organism and
wild plant and animal germplasm is an invaluable and inalienable asset
that shall be cared for;
r. Species and their variants have the right to continue existing, and are,
or may be, useful now and/or for generations to come; and
s. The integrated implementation of cross sectoral and sectoral federal,
regional and local policies shall be seen as a prerequisite to achieving
the objectives of this Policy on the Environment.
In addition to its Guiding Principles the EPE provides Sectoral Environmental
Policies and Cross-sectoral Environmental Policies. Environmental Impact
Assessment policies are included in the latter. The EIA policies are:
a. To ensure that EIA’s consider not only physical and biological impacts
but also address social, socio-economic, political and cultural
conditions;
b. To ensure that public and private sector development programmes and
projects recognise environmental impacts early and incorporate their
containment into the development design process;
c. To recognise that public consultation is an integral part of EIA and
ensure that EIA procedures make provision for both an independent
review and public comment before consideration by decision-makers;
d. To ensure that the environmental impact statement always includes
mitigation plans for environmental management problems and
contingency plans in case of accidents;
e. To ensure that, at specified intervals during project implementation,
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environmental audits regarding monitoring, inspection and record
keeping take place for activities where these have been required by the
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS);
f. To ensure that preliminary and full EIA’s are undertaken by the relevant
sectoral ministries or departments if in the public sector, and by the
developer, if in the private sector;
g. To create by law and EIA process which requires appropriate
environmental impact statements and environmental audits for private
and state development projects;
h. To establish the necessary institutional framework and determine the
linkages of its parts for undertaking, coordinating and approving EIA’s
and the subsequent system of environmental audits required to ensure
compliance with conditionalities;
i. To develop detailed sectoral technical guidelines in EIA’s and
environmental audits;
j. To ensure that social, socio-economic, political and cultural conditions
are considered in EIA procedures and included in sectoral guidelines;
and
k. To develop EIA and environmental audit capacity and capability in the
EPA, sectoral ministries and agencies as well as the regions.
EIA is not currently a legal requirement, however, the intent of these policies is
for their promulgation into legislation and in this regard a framework
environmental law is under preparation. The requirements of the EIA policy
have been considered in the following principles.
2.3 EIA Objectives and Principles
The primary purpose of conducting an EIA is to ensure that the environmental
effects of proposed activities are adequately and appropriately considered
before decisions are taken. This should serve as a key aid in the decision-
making process for relevant authorities by providing comprehensive information
on the environmental consequences of development. Evaluated information
and supporting arguments enable decision makers to evaluate the overall
impacts of a proposal and alternatives to that proposal.
There are a number of principles which underlie this objective, these include:
Early application - the EIA process should be applied as early as
possible in the proposed planning of investment as is practical. This
should ensure that environmental issues are considered pro-actively
before irrevocable decisions are taken. Practicality generally dictates
that the EIA process is applied during project conceptualisation.
Participation - this requires that all interested and affected parties
have the opportunity to participate meaningfully in the EIA process.
Issues based - EIA should focus on the resolution of issues which are
considered to be important to those participating in the process.
Alternatives - EIA should consider all feasible alternatives which may
include different methods of undertaking a development, alternative
sites, alternative sources of raw materials. The “no-go” option is
another feasible alternative.
Accountability - project proponents are accountable for the potential
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impacts of activities being undertaken as well as managing impacts.
Consultants are accountable for providing sufficient information to
enable decision-makers to take sound decisions. The Competent
Agency is accountable for the decisions that are taken.
The two key objectives of the Ethiopian EIA process are the:
Integration of environmental considerations in development planning
processes in order to make use of natural resources in a responsible
manner; and
Protection and enhancement of the quality of all life forms.
2.4 The Competent Agency
The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) is the Competent Agency at the
Federal level in Ethiopia. It is, therefore, the responsibility of this authority in
the EIA process to:
• ensure that the proponent complies with requirements of the EIA process;
• maintain co-operation and consultation between the different sectoral
agencies throughout the EIA process;
• maintain a close relationship with the proponent and to provide guidance
on the process; and
• evaluate and take decisions on the documents that arise from the EIA
process.
These factors will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.
At the regional level, the Federal EPA has devolved responsibility to the
Regional equivalent to the EPA. The regional authorities should ideally
establish an EPA-type institution to deal with environmental issues at the
regional level. This is, however, a long-term objective. In the interim period,
however, the Regional Environmental Co-ordination Committee (RECC), which
comprise responsible officers from different sectoral Bureaus must take the
responsibility at the Regional level. Seeing as that the RECC’s are not sectoral
based they can be viewed as being independent of the outcome of a specific
EIA. Due to competence and capacity limitations, the RECC may chose to
designate a specific sectoral Bureau to take responsibility for an EIA process.
The sectoral Bureau must not, however, have a vested interest in the outcome
of the EIA process. This is particularly important where a sectoral agency
houses the secretariat of the RECC. The Federal EPA should act in an
advisory capacity to the Regional EPA-type organisations.
It is the responsibility of the regional EPA bodies to inform the Federal EPA of
projects that may be of national significance. Therefore the Federal authority
should only be involved in EIA processes where a proposed activity may:
• have an environmental effect across the international boundaries of
Ethiopia;
• have an environmental effect across regional boundaries within
Ethiopia;
• have an effect on an environment of national or international
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significance, including but not limited to natural forests, wetlands,
national parks, cultural heritage sites etc.
• have a Federal government department, the relevant regional authority
or another statutory body as the proponent;
• have the Federal Investment Authority as the investment approval body.
Alternatively Federal EPA may have an EIA referred if agreed to between the
Federal authority and the regional authority. This would typically happen in
complicated EIA’s where the Regional authority feels that it does not have the
capacity or competency to deal with the application.
2.5 Scheduled activities
The Schedule of activities that may be required to undergo an EIA process as
detailed in Chapter 3 of this document is provided in Appendix 1. Note though
that decision-making within the EIA process occurs after specific phases,
therefore, not all of the Schedule 1 and 2 activities will be required to undertake
a full EIA as per the process detailed in Section 3. All projects must be
submitted to a Screening exercise. Those projects indicated in Schedule 1 are
the most likely to require a full EIA to evaluate their environmental
consequence.
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FIGURE 3.1. EIA APPLICATION PROCESS
9
AUDIT
EIA APPLICATION PROCESS
PROPOSAL TO UNDERTAKE ACTIVITY / INVESTMENT
REJECT
ACCEPT
ACCEPT
ACCEPT
ACCEPT
DECISION
APPROVED NOT APPROVED
CONDITIONS OF
APPROVAL
IMPLEMENTATION
APPEAL
DECISION
RECORD OF DECISION
REVIEW EIS
EIA
DECISION
SCOPING
REVIEW SCREENING REPORT
REVIEW SCOPING REPORT
AMEND
AMEND
AMEND
SCREENING
PRE-SCREENING CONSULTATION
LEGEND ACTIVITIES
REVIEWS
DECISIONS
SUBMIT APPLICATION TO ASSESSMENT AGENCIES
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
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FIGURE 3.2
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CHAPTER 3 : THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
ASSESSMENT PROCESS
The regulatory process for conducting an environmental impact assessment in
Ethiopia is shown in Figures 3.1 and 3.2. Please refer to this figure throughout
this Chapter and please note that the inclusion of activities prior to the “Pre-
screening consultation” is for the sake of completion in terms of the investment
process rather than for descriptive purposes in the following discussion. The
assessment agencies should on issuance of an Investment Permit indicate the
need for EIA to a potential investor and should not issue an Operation Permit
without an Environmental Clearance Certificate.
Please also consider that project descriptions and the evaluation of impacts
etc. must consider the full life-cycle of a project (including: construction,
operation and decommissioning).
3.1 Roles and Responsibilities
There are a number of potential role players in an EIA, including:
proponent
consultant
interested and affected parties
Competent Agency
These roles are explained further.
3.1.1 Proponent
The proponent is the project applicant (i.e. the developer). The proponent is
responsible for complying with the requirements of the EIA process. The first
responsibility of the proponent, however, is to appoint an independent
consultant who will act on the proponent’s behalf in the EIA process. The
proponent should ensure that the consultant has:
• expertise in environmental assessment and management;
• the ability to manage the required participation process
• the ability to produce reports that are readable, thorough and
informative
• a good working knowledge of environmental impact assessment and
management policies, legislation, guidelines and standards.
The proponent may appoint an independent consultant or a multi-disciplinary
group of consultants.
The proponent is responsible for all associated costs incurred when following
the EIA process. The proponent must ensure that adequate participation of the
Competent Agency and interested and affected parties has been carried out.
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On completion of the EIA, it will be the proponent’s responsibility to ensure that
the Conditions of Approval are carried out (including monitoring and auditing).
3.1.2 Consultant
The independent consultant acts on behalf of the proponent in complying to the
EIA process and is responsible for showing that he/she has:
• expertise in environmental assessment and management;
• the ability to manage the required participation process
• the ability to produce reports that are readable, thorough and
informative
• a good working knowledge of environmental impact assessment and
management policies, legislation, guidelines and standards.
Further the consultant is responsible for all processes, plans and reports
produced while following the EIA process and should have adequate access to
facilities for storing this information. The consultant should also ensure that all
of this information is made available to the Competent Agency. The consultant
must ensure that adequate participation of the Competent Agency and
interested and affected parties has been carried out.
The consultant must ensure that he/she has no vested (financial or otherwise)
interest in the proposed development other than ensuring compliance to the
EIA process. Furthermore, the consultant may not work for the Competent
Agency while working for the proponent on a particular application. This is key
aspect in ensuring that the findings of the EIA are unbiased and in the best
interest of all stakeholders.
3.1.3 Interested and affected parties
Interested and affected parties (IAPs) are key to a successful EIA and are
responsible for providing input and comments at various stages in the EIA
process. The input from interested and affected parties should be sought
during the scoping phase, in assessing and mitigating impacts and in the
review of the EIS. In accepting the responsibility to participate, IAPs should
ensure that their inputs and comments are provided within the specified
(reasonable) time limit set by the proponent and his/her consultant. IAPs
should not be confined for projects since diversity will enhance the output of the
EIA and will ensure a detailed and unbiased assessment is carried out.
3.1.4 Competent Agency
As detailed in Section 2.4, the Federal EPA is the Competent Agency but has
devolved EIA responsibility to the Regional EPA equivalent as specified by the
Regional Environmental Committee on a project-by-project basis.
The Competent Agency is responsible for ensuring that the
proponent/consultant complies with the requirements of the EIA process. This
may mean regular and effective communication between the authority and the
proponent/consultant to provide general guidance on procedure, information
and reports required. The Competent Agency should also ensure that the
authority requirements are adhered to. This may mean the involvement of
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other responsible authorities (e.g. the Agricultural Bureau) as and when
necessary. In involving other authorities, the Competent Agency must ensure
appropriate information is provided to the sectoral authorities and that there is
efficient and adequate opportunity for communication between the authority
groups.
One of the most important functions of the Competent Agency is to
evaluate/review and provide decisions on applications. The Competent Agency
should:
ensure that the evaluation/review and decisions provided are done
efficiently and within reasonable time, and that the proponent is
informed timeously of any delays that may be incurred through the
review process; and
ensure that the proponent/consultant is informed of any shortfalls in the
process as identified through the reviews.
The Competent Agency should strive to ensure that the information required
through the EIA process is kept to only that which is relevant to decision-
making so as not to unnecessarily burden the proponent with additional cost or
to increase the time spent on the EIA needlessly.
The Competent Agency must not be responsible for conducting an EIA as this
would constitute a serious conflict of interest in the decision-making process.
3.2 Pre-screening consultation
Pre-screening contact is advisable as it can save time for all parties. A mutual
understanding of the requirements can be obtained from the outset. In this
phase the proponent should contact the Competent Agency in the region and
establish an official contact person who will assist in guiding the process. The
consultation may take the form of a formal meeting, a telephonic conversation
or correspondence by means of facsimile or electronic mail. Consultation at
such an early stage should avoid delays caused by requests from the authority
requiring additional information occurring at a later stage. The consultation will
also provide the opportunity for an exchange of views.
It is also recommended that the proponent contact other sectoral agencies
which may have an interest in the proposed project.
Pre-screening consultation will also allow the authority to register the
application (by opening a file or capturing the information on computer).
3.3 Screening
Prior to entering into the screening phase of the EIA it is recommended that the
proponent appoint an independent consultant to assist in the process. The
Screening phase of the EIA should decide the following:
the need for and level of assessment;
level of government to be responsible for the project (Federal or
Regional)
other necessary permits or approval processes (e.g. rezoning, etc)
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acceptability of the consultant to assist the proponent (as specified by
the roles and responsibilities of the consultant – Section 3.1.2);
the public participation process; and
the total life-cycle of the project.
The screening process would form the same purpose as a “Preliminary
Environmental Impact Assessment”.
Therefore, the proponent should submit to the Competent Agency a screening
report that contains the following (Appendix 2):
the title of the proposed activity;
the name of the proponent and the consultant(s) representing the
proponent;
the address of the proponent and the consultant(s) representing the
proponent (including telephone numbers, fax numbers and e-mail
address)
location of the proposed development;
the proposed extent of the activity; and
any potential environmental issues identified by the proponent (which
may include a short description of the affected environment).
Five copies of the screening report and accompanying documentation must be
submitted to the Competent Agency for review. The Competent Agency shall
make its decision within one month from the day of receipt of the screening
report of the proposed project regarding amendment, exemption or conducting
detailed study and notify the proponent accordingly.
In addition, the Competent Agency must inform the applicant whether the
applicant must advertise the application, and of the manner in which this must
be done. The advantages of advertising at this early stage are to formally
inform all IAPs of the potential project and the EIA process at the earliest
opportunity. Advertising may take the form of “on-site” advertising where a
notice board may be placed in the location of the site or through “media
advertising” where an advert is placed in an appropriate newspaper (i.e. one
that is read by the people where the development is proposed to take place).
3.4. Scoping
Scoping is the process of identifying and “narrowing down” the potential
environmental impacts associated with the development. The scoping process
ensures that the EIA focuses on pertinent issues. The level of an impact
assessment will depend on the nature and scale of the development proposal;
its complexity; the sensitivity of the environment; and issues identified during
the scoping process. Therefore, it is crucial that the scoping exercise is carried
out effectively.
It is recommended that the proponent or his/her consultant prepare a detailed
plan of study for the scoping exercise. This plan of study is important in
ensuring that where public consultation is required, all the relevant parties,
which may have an interest in the application, including other government
departments, are identified.
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If a plan of study for scoping is prepared, it should include:
a brief description of the activity to be undertaken;
a description of all tasks to be performed during scoping;
a schedule setting out when the tasks contemplated will be completed;
an indication of the stages at which the relevant authority will be
consulted; and
a description of the proposed methods of identifying the environmental
issues and alternatives
The advantages of preparing a plan of study for scoping is that it communicate,
at an early stage, the extent of the study. It is, therefore, recommended that
the plan of study for scoping be provided to the Competent Agency for
comment and/or approval.
Initial consultation with interested and affected parties (IAPs) really determines
the scope of the impact assessment (or whether a full EIA is in fact required at
all). It is important to maintain the scope throughout the assessment process.
Public consultation and participation aims to assure the quality,
comprehensiveness and effectiveness of the environmental assessment. It
ensures that the views and concerns of all interested and affected parties are
taken into consideration. Various techniques may be employed through the
participation exercise, including
public meetings;
telephonic surveys;
exhibits, displays and “open days”;
newspaper advertisements;
written information
surveys, interview s and questionnaires
working with established groups (e.g. NGO’s, community organisations
etc)
workshops and seminars
Public meetings are not always an effective means of conveying information to
and receiving information from the public. Therefore, for participation it is
important to consider the social and economic environment within the affected
environment of the proposal area to select an appropriate consultation
approach to ensure true consultation.
The scoping exercise should be documented in the form of a scoping report
which is submitted to the authority for review and approval. The scoping report
should basically be a concise presentation of the major issues identified and
the public participation process. As a minimum, the report should reflect the
following:
a brief description of the project;
all the alternatives identified during the scoping process;
all the issues raised by interested and affected parties and how these
will be addressed; and
a description of the public participation process including a list of
interested and affected parties, and minutes of meetings.
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It is recommended that the scoping report contain a detailed plan of study for
the EIA, should an EIA be considered to be necessary. This plan of study will
ensure that the relevant alternatives are investigated further and that the critical
issues are carried forward into further processes. Specialists may need to be
appointed to assess certain aspects in detail, as identified through the issues in
the scoping exercise. The plan of study for EIA will form the basis of Terms or
Reference for the EIA. The plan of study for EIA should contain the following:
a description of the environmental issues identified during scoping that
may require further investigation and assessment;
a description of the feasible alternatives identified during scoping that
may be further investigated;
an indication of additional information required to determine the
potential impacts of the proposed activity on the environment;
a description of the proposed method of identifying these impacts; and
a description of the proposed method of assessing the significance of
these impacts.
It is important that the information in this report is as comprehensive as
possible since a decision regarding whether the project should go ahead or not,
and whether an EIA is required to further investigate issues and alternatives,
will be made on the basis of this report. In many cases where there are no
major issues identified, the scoping report will be sufficient for a decision to be
made and no further studies will be required.
Alternatively, further investigations may be required, or a full EIA may be called
for.
The IAPs should be afforded an opportunity to review the scoping report. This
ensures verification of the process before it is too far advanced. The kinds of
situations which may prompt organisations to object would be where key
parties have not been consulted, or where significant issues or alternatives are
omitted from the proposed investigation. IAP review should determine whether
the issues raised have been addressed in the scoping report. IAPs should be
afforded a reasonable timeframe for their review - typically in the region of four
weeks. The process of IAP review should be reflected in the final scoping
report.
Five copies of the scoping report should be submitted to the Competent
Agency for review. The Competent Agency should review the document to
determine whether the process followed in preparing the report has been
adequate and that there has been sufficient consultation with IAPs. Sufficiency
should be based on the discretion of the reviewer.
The review should also contain an analysis of the information provided to
determine whether due attention has been paid to possible project alternatives
and whether the issues identified have been afforded appropriate attention.
The authority should complete the review within four weeks of receipt of the
scoping report. The authority may request, where it feels unqualified to review
a scoping report, that the proponent appoint an independent specialist reviewer
to provide comment on the report. The independent specialist should,
however, be selected by the authority to ensure an unbiased assessment of the
report.
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Following the review of the scoping report the Competent Agency may request
that portions of the document be amended or may decide to approve or reject
the application without the requirement for further investigation (Section 3.6).
Should the information be inadequate to take a decision, the Competent
Agency may request that the scoping report be supplemented by an EIS.
3.5 Environmental Impact Assessment
In conducting the EIA, a proponent may be required to appoint technical
specialists to prepare certain aspects of the Environmental Impact Statement
(EIS). These specialist studies should be prepared in the form of specialist
reports and appended to the EIS.
It is important that the EIA report is clearly and concisely documented, so that
key issues can quickly and efficiently be identified by decision makers. An EIS
should contain the following information:
An executive summary (This summary has to be concise and present
and highlight the main issues pertinent to decision making on the
project. The summary should be developed in non-technical terms such
that it may be readily undertood by decision-makers and other
stakeholders)
List of consultants: Names and qualification of members of the study
team.
A description of the development project covering:-
Need
objectives
technical details
size, location, input and other relevant requirements
An outline of the main development alternatives.
A description of the baseline environmental, socio-economic and health
conditions such as fauna, flora, habitats, soil, water, air, cultural
artifacts, and socio-cultural, socio-economic and health considerations.
An account of the prediction and assessment of each impact at all
stages of the project cycle for each alternative. As much as possible
impact prediction should be expressed quantitatively. Information for
each impact must be provided on:
the methodology used.
the magnitude of immediate and cumulative impacts – long and
short
term (expressed in appropriate units)
whether it is adverse or beneficial
whether it is reversible or irreversible
likelihood of its occurrence “with and without” scenarios
the time span for which impacts are predicted and the geographic
boundaries selected to define the study areaDescription of
measures to
prevent or reduce significant adverse impacts or enhance beneficial
effects and an assessment of their likely outcome.
A description of residual impacts which can not be mitigated or can only
be mitigated partially.
A description of proposed monitoring schemes.
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A discussion of potential uses of the environment which will be
prevented or rendered less productive due to adverse impacts.
Description of relevant national and/or international legal reports, and
guidelines used. In the absence of Ethiopian standards the EIA should
include a description of the standards and an overview as to why a
specific standard was used.
Statement on the extent of involvement.
Identification of information gaps and uncertainties.
The budgetary implications and financial measures to be taken to
ensure that mitigation measures can be adequately carried out.
Of greatest importance in the EIS is the assessment and description of
impacts. In this regard, it may be useful to present results of the assessment in
the form of a matrix summary, whereby the different activities and associated
impacts on the environment are weighted with a scoring system. The scoring
system is not necessarily used for comparative purposes but for a simple
approach towards describing the significance of each impact. Impacts must be
described according to the following criteria:
Nature of the impact - this reviews the type of effect that a proposed
activity will have on the environment and should include “what will be
affected and how”.
Extent - this should indicate whether the impact will be locally extending
as far as the site and its immediate surroundings, or whether the
impacts may be realised regionally, nationally or even internationally.
Duration - this should review the lifetime of the impact, as being short
term (0-5 years), medium term (5-15 years), long terms (where the
impacts will cease after the operation of the site) or permanent.
Intensity - here it should be established whether the impact is
destructive or innocuous and should be described as either low (where
no environmental functions and processes are affected), medium
(where the environment continues to function but in a modified manner)
or high (where environmental functions and processes are altered such
that they temporarily or permanently ceased).
Probability - considers the likelihood of an impact occurring.
Mitigation measures should be clearly spelt out in the EIS. Mitigation measures
aim to minimise or eliminate negative impacts and enhance the benefits
wherever possible. The mitigation measures should be prepared as an
operational management plan and could include:
changes in project planning and design (particularly where the change
in design may eliminate or reduce an impact);
improving monitoring and management; and
monetary compensation.
Often the mitigation measures will include a combination of these.
On completion, the EIS should be submitted to the Competent Agency, the
IAPs and a specialist for review. The purpose of the review is to ensure that
the document is an adequate reflection of the environmental impacts that may
result from the development and that the document provides sufficient
information on which decisions may be taken. The EIS shall be submitted in
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five copies to the Competent Agency. The proponent is responsible for co-
ordinating the IAP reviews, either through distributing the document to all of the
IAPs or by making the document available in strategic places (e.g. public
libraries, schools, clinics etc).
Review of EIS’s of proposed projects will be made based on the EIA guidelines
and appropriate environmental quality standards and the relevant legislation.
Impacts identified in the document should be reviewed in terms of the EIS:
socio-economic context and potential benefits;
effect on public health or risk to life;
scale;
geographical extent;
duration and frequency;
reversibility or irreversibility;
ecological context;
regional, national or international importance; and
degree of uncertainty.
The authority review should be completed within four weeks of submission of
the final EIS.
If new issues were raised and addressed during the EIA process, these must
be added as an addendum to the initial scoping report submitted.
When the review has been completed, the Competent Agency should decide
whether to accept the application as it stands, reject the application or request
that the document be amended.
3.6 Record of decision and appeal
An application may be accepted or refused by the Competent Agency after the
screening, scoping or EIA phases of the EIA (as per Figure 3.1). The
Competent Agency must provide a record of decision report which should be
provided to the proponent be made available to any interested and affected
party on request.
The Record of Decision report should contain the following details:
a brief description of the proposed activity, the extent or quantities and
the surface areas involved, the infrastructure requirements and the
implementation programme for which the authorisation is issued;
the specific place where the activity is to be undertaken;
the name, address and telephone number of the applicant;
the name, address and telephone number of any consultant involved;
the date of, and persons present at, site visits, if any;
the decision of the relevant authority;
the conditions of the authorisation (if any), including measures to
mitigate, control or manage environmental impacts or to rehabilitate the
environment;
the key factors that led to the decision;
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the date of expiry of the duration of the authorisation;
the name of the person to whom an appeal may be directed;
the signature of a person who represents the relevant authority; and
the date of the decision.
The Record of Decision Report may form the basis of an Environmental
Clearance Certificate if the project is approved and may contain the details of
the Conditions of Approval.
A proponent or other interested party who is dissatisfied may object to actions,
opinions or decision made not later than 30 days after receipt of such a
decision. Appeal should be submitted in writing, clearly specifying the grounds
for the appeal to the RECC’s or to the General Manager of the EPA -
depending on the Competent Agency for the EIA. The Head of the Competent
Agency should make his decision within 30 (thirty) days following the receipt of
the appeal.
Please note that the Competent Agency is responsible for the decision and is,
therefore, solely responsible for dealing with the review, though he/she may
choose to involve a specialist for aspects where competency is insufficient to
provide an adequate review. It is not the proponent’s responsibility to deal with
the review in any capacity.
3.7 Conditions of approval
The Conditions of Approval may be included into the Record of Decision but
are typically prepared as a separate document.
Ideally, the EIA should specify clearly the mitigation measures for each
identified impact. An EIA might indicate that a development would have a
significant negative impact on the environment, without mitigation. In this
instance, the authority, in approving a proposal may wish to make
implementation of mitigation measures on condition of approval. The
proponent may then be required to submit a detailed environmental
management plan (EMP). The EMP would describe in detail how each
mitigation measure would be undertaken. Monitoring criteria should also be
supplied and responsibilities clearly defined. Positive measures should also be
enhanced through management or mitigation measures.
The EMP may need to be publicly reviewed. Only once the adequacy of the
EMP is agreed to, would the EIA and EMP be approved and development
allowed to commence. Regular independent monitoring would be undertaken
at the cost of the proponent. This would be relayed to the authority who would
ensure and enforce compliance with EMP.
The condition of approval is a legally binding relationship between the authority
and the developer. The purpose of the contract is to provide the authority with
an additional means of ensuring that the EMP , and any other environmental
requirements are implemented to their satisfaction.
3.8. Auditing
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It is the responsibility of the proponent to conduct regular internal audits of the
environmental performance of the operation. The audits should be a
systematic evaluation of the activities of the operation in relation to the
specified criteria of the condition of approval. The auditing results should be
submitted to the Competent Agency for review and comment. Included in the
auditing process should be compliance monitoring of the surrounding
environment. The compliance monitoring should be the responsibility of the
proponent and the results submitted to the Competent Agency. The
Competent Agency may choose to undertake ad hoc monitoring to verify the
compliance monitoring results. The auditing of the competent agency would be
in the form of verification of internal reports.
The auditing and monitoring results may be prepared in the form of an
Environmental Performance Report which should describe the extent to which
the organisation has complied to its environmental requirements. The report
should be submitted to the Competent Agency but may further be submitted to
the IAPs for their comment and review. The aim of the report should be to
provide honest information about environmental performance.
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CHAPTER 4 : STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES
No environmental standards have as yet been established for Ethiopia. This
may be a barrier to effective environmental management and assessment, as
there is no consensus on acceptable environmental performance for polluters
and/or resource users. In other countries government policy and legislation
have called for the establishment of guidelines, parameters, limits, standards,
values, norms, criteria and indicators to ensure sustainable use of the
environment. The Environmental Protection Authority is in the process of
establishing standards and guidelines that are applicable in Ethiopia. However,
in the absence of Ethiopia specific standards, the evaluation of impacts in the
EIA process must specify the standards used and why that particular standard
has been used.
Setting standards or guidelines should consider local conditions and the socio-
economic level of a particular situation. On this basis, the quoted standards of
developed countries (like USA, Belgium etc) should be applied with caution,
recognising the inherent limitations of their application.
This Chapter, therefore, provides background information to standards and
guidelines in general.
A number of terms relate to levels of environmental quality and may include:
Standards:
Quantifiable limits with regard to volumes, concentrations and numbers (van
Viegen, 1998) and values that are written into law
Guidelines:
Practical tools not written into law
Values and norms:
Limits that are generally acceptable by society. Norms are set by society.
Criteria:
Relate to specific objectives that need to be attained to achieve a
predetermined result
Objectives:
The basis of action plans drawn up to achieve standards or remain within limits
demarcated by standards. These are set by ‘managers’ in agreement with
‘society’
The most commonly used terms though are standards and guidelines. They
are quantifiable and if written into law, they are termed standards; if they are
the basis of action plans for achieving them, they are sometimes termed
objectives or targets; and if they are practical tools not written into law, they
are usually termed guidelines.
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The determination of standards and guidelines is situation specific, therefore,
Ethiopia will in time determine its own standards and guidelines. Table 4.1
provides an overview towards the different processes for determining
appropriate standards and guidelines.
Appendix 3 contains specific standards and guidelines from other parts of the
world for air and water quality. Please note that the standards provided are for
ambient concentrations are simply examples of the different ambient guidelines
that may be used.
Table 4.1 : STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES FOR AMBIENT CONDITIONS
ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA
STDS/GUIDELINES/CRITERIA
AVAILABLE
RATIONALE &
APPROACH
Freshwater ecosystems
International
World Health Organisation
Guidelines
European Community
Drinking Water Standards
Australian, Canadian and
USA water quality criteria
and guidelines
South African
SABS Applications for water
quality
CSIR Drinking Water Criteria
Dept of National Health &
Population Development
Criteria for Water Quality
DWAF internal discussion
document
Rationale to:
Develop a single set
of guidelines and
criteria that was
appropriate as a
baseline in SA
Modify international
guidelines in the
light of local
research and
experience
Approach taken:
Guidelines to serve
as a stand-alone
source of
information and
support base for
decisions. Site
specific guidelines
should support this
base.
Air environment WHO Guidelines for “classical
compounds”
USEPA Guidelines for 6
“criteria pollutants”
Canadian Guidelines
UK Guidelines
NZ Guidelines
Not written into law but
serves as important
benchmarks.
Terrestrial Ecosystems Do not exist
Human Communities No standards available – only value
judgements, mostly of a regional or
local scale
Other Guidelines available Canadian Environmental Quality
Guidelines
Includes guidelines on water
(ambient and drinking), air,
sediment, soil and tissue
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CHAPTER 5 : ISSUES FOR SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN ETHIOPIA
The following sections describe issues for EIA in specific development
sectors in Ethiopia. The EIA process, as described in Chapter 3 must be
followed in each of these sectors, however, the details provided here aim at
identifying the possible impacts as well as mitigation measures that should
be considered in EIA’s that may be conducted. The information provided is
by no means comprehensive and would need to be embellished during the
EIA process. The purpose of this section is to simply highlight potential
environmental concerns related to these development activities.
The following sectors have been described:
• Agriculture
• Industry
• Transport
• Mining
• Dams and reservoirs
• Tannery
• Textile
• Hydropower generation
• Irrigation projects
• Resettlement projects
This section has been structured so as to describe the development sector in
general and then to highlight the potential environmental impacts. The impacts
are listed to assist the scoping and assessment phases in an EIA. It must be
noted however that each project is unique and only some of the more
generalized impacts are presented. The guidelines can also serve as an aid to
authorities when reviewing the EIA process.
The issues for environmental assessment in each of the development sectors
has been prepared as a Table. In the Tables, the left had column broadly
describes the potential broad scale issue that might result from the activity, the
central column considers the specific action that might result from the activity
while the right hand column provides a description of the potential impact that
might result. When utilising the table, the reader is encouraged to firstly
consider the potential for a particular issue occurring and then evaluate the
potential for a specific impact. Potential measures for managing the
environmental concerns are also provided for each sector.
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5.1 Agriculture
5.1.1 Background
Agriculture is the dominant sector of the Ethiopian economy accounting for
about 50% of GDP and 85 % of export revenue, and providing livelihood for 85
% of the population. Agriculture in Ethiopia is mainly mixed crop and animal
production in the wetter highland and trans-human animal production in the
drier lowlands. It is envisaged that agriculture will continue to dominate the
economy and this aim is being furthered by the declared Agricultural
Development-Led-Industrialization (ADLI) policy. The main objective of the
ADLI policy is improving agricultural productivity of small holder agriculture and
related industrialization, based on increased provision of agricultural raw
materials to the industrial sector.
Past experience has shown that small scale peasant farming and some large
scale mechanized agriculture have caused massive environmental degradation
such as deforestation, soil erosion and water quality deterioration.
Environmental degradation is compounded by unwise use of natural resources
and the absence of integration of environmental requirements in most of the
development projects.
The fast-tracking of development endeavours in this sector, in the absence of
an Environmental Impact Assessment system, could lead to severe
environmental impacts. Highlighting the environmental impact considerations
associated with agriculture will hopefully make agricultural sector projects
environmentally sustainable.
5.1.2 Issues for environmental assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
Issue Sources/Causes Impact
CROP HUSBANDRY
Soil degradation fertilizer use
pesticide use
mechanisation
poor farming practices
Soil erosion through soil cultivation, deforestation and the removal of
vegetation
Soil compaction
Sedimentation in the irrigation system
Acidification of the soil through the use of fertilizers and the leaching
process
Salinisation of the soil
Soil pollution through the use of pesticides & artificial fertilizers
Nutritional deficiencies as a result of nutrients being taken out of the
soil by crops
Local climatic change Irrigation
Ground cover
Photosynthesis
Change in local humidity
Changes in local temperature
Damage to water
resource
Run-off
Fertilizers
Sediments
Pesticides
Nutrients and salts
Pollution of surface water
Increased algal growth & eutrophication from nitrogen and
phosphorus runoff into water
Reduced water quality and sunlight penetration due to suspended
particles
Ground water pollution
Increased nitrate concentrations
Pesticide pollution of ground water
Water supply contamination by waste oil from machinery
Deterioration of water quality by sedimentation released by soil
erosion
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
Issue Sources/Causes Impact
Genetic
transformation
Importation of seeds &
plants
Importation of genetically
modified foods/plants
Potential for human consumption of treated grain seed
Threat to existing genetic diversity
Threat to human health
Disturbance of the
natural environment
Aesthetics
Encroachment into the
natural environment
Barrier effects of cultivated
land
Threat to biological diversity and preservation of ecosystems
Obstruction of the migrational paths of wildlife
Increased activity and impacts on natural environments
Changes in biological diversity promoted by traditional farming
activities
Reduction of the aesthetic value of an area
Maintenance of
culturally/historically
significant sites
Encroachment of
agricultural project onto
significant sites
Loss or damage of historical monuments or relics, burial sites,
sacred sites or other significant cultural or historical objects
Health and safety Introduction of pests and
diseases with new seeds
and plants
Irrigation systems
Pesticides
Introduction of new species and varieties of pests & diseases
Spread of pests through dissemination by irrigation systems
Potential impacts of pesticide use in pest eradication
Land use conflict
Utilization of natural
resources
Change in social
structure
Change in land use
Resettlement
Barrier effects of cultivated
land
Secondary growth
Use of new technologies
Conflict with other forms of land use
Forced removal of permanent residents
Obstruction to the migration paths of people and animals
Influx of people looking for work opportunities in the project area
Increased pressure on natural resources through migration
Increased use of child labour
Consequences of the introduction of new technologies and inputs
such as greater risk and expense
Increased pressure on local authorities and infrastructure
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Over-utilization
Soil damage
Aesthetics
Overgrazing
Free grazing
Manure Production
Livestock based industries
and transport
Growth and production of animals impeded by overgrazing and the
subsequent decrease in the food supply
Trampling resulting in vegetation loss and soil erosion
Use of vulnerable land leading to soil erosion through overgrazing
Soil erosion may damage water resources
Pollution of the soil by excess manure
Disposal on land of by products from food industry
Chrome pollution from tanning industry
Overuse of transportation networks with increased production, leads
to dust problems and a strain on infrastructure
Alteration of the visual character of the landscape
Air pollution
Acid rain
Environmental health
Global warming
Dust
Smell
Manure production
Livestock based industries
and transport
Odour problems relating to manure production
Impact on human and animal health due to excess ammonia and
H2S production
Dust production through increased transportation
Increased GHG production by ruminants and through increased
refrigeration and freezing facilities
Water pollution
Eutrophication
Overuse of resource
Manure production
Livestock based industries
and transport
Water consumption
Pollution of surface water by manure
Eutrophication of water bodies by surplus nutrients from manure
Pollution of ground water by nitrates from manure
Overconsumption of water leads to a lowering of the water table
Health and safety Introduction and growth of
parasite populations
Inferior nutrition
Pesticides
Antibiotics
Potential for parasite population increase around watering sources,
feeding places and/or pastures
Increased vulnerability to disease due to inferior nutrition
Introduction of new diseases or parasites with new livestock
Movement of chemical pesticides, to eradicate pesticides, into the
environment
Implications of antibiotic use for developing resistant microbes and
polluting the environment
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
Issue Sources/Causes Impact
Genetic
transformation
Introduction of exotic
livestock breeds
Displacement of plant
varieties
Displacements of plant varieties and subsequent loss of plant
genetic variation due to greater efficiency in animal husbandry
Loss of genes due to the introduction of exotic livestock breeds
Pressure on sensitive
ecosystems
Expropriation of land for
animal husbandry
Destruction or modification of vulnerable or valuable ecosystems
Maintenance of
culturally/historically
significant sites
Expropriation of land for
animal husbandry
Loss or damage of historical monuments or relics, burial sites,
sacred sites or other significant cultural or historical objects
Land use conflicts
Utilization of natural
resources
Change in social
structure
Changes in land use
Secondary growth
Use of natural resources
Conflict over scarce land resources
Uncontrolled immigration into the project area
Conflict between existing populations and new comers
Increased pressure on natural resources
5.1.3. Recommendations for environmental management
Use of fertilizers: Consideration must be given to the use of both
organic and artificial fertilizers, as well as nitrogen fixing plants.
Fertilizer use should follow specific guidelines
There should be control of seed importation by local authorities to stop
the import of plant diseases and pests
Ensure that the national legal framework, in terms of seed importation
and plant spreading, is known to those involved in the project
In the case of genetically modified organisms, obtainment of a permit
Adequate provision of amenities for those relocated and those who
move into an area
Empowerment of women in all capacities
Primary focus should be on the growth of subsistence foods
The type of project must ensure the provision of a sustainable income
for farmers
Types of land tenure which can promote overgrazing should be
considered e.g. Communal ownership
Provision of adequate veterinary services
Proximity to conservation areas may require the creation of buffer zones
Local knowledge of animal husbandry should be utilised
Due cognisance given to local traditions, taboos and other socio-
cultural conditions linked to livestock and nutrition. Projects should
avoid agricultural produce which would not be eaten
Implementation of special measures to reduce soil erosion e.g. build
terraces, cover exposed soil
Preference should be given to strategies which provide the desired
development without the loss of genetic material
Alternative uses of manure should be investigated
There should be protection of sites of cultural/historical/ecological
importance
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5.2 Industry
5.2.1 Background
There are about 1,263 industrial enterprises in Ethiopia. The majority of them
are in manufacturing and processing, including textiles, chemicals, metal,
leather, food and beverage, paper and printing, sugar, tobacco, wood-working,
construction and mining.
Industrial activity is concentrated mainly in and around Addis Ababa,
accounting for about two thirds of the manufacturing value added (MVA). This
has resulted in a major water pollution problem in Addis Ababa. The limited
number of project specific river basin studies carried out so far by Government
bodies, have indicated that industrial/urban pollution of water resources is a
problem especially in the Awash River and Rift Valley Lakes Basin.
Furthermore, the new economic policy adopted by the government is
envisaged to encourage the acceleration of local as well as foreign investment
in the industrial and agricultural economic sectors of the country. The expected
rapid development will have both positive and negative impacts. The economic
development will improve the standard of living of citizens. However, the
associated pollution could outweigh the benefits, particularly in Ethiopia which
has poor infrastructure for public health and environmental protection. A
proper monitoring mechanism incorporating design, operations, and shutdown
of industrial plants needs to be established. EPA, therefore formulated a
checklist for the manufacturing and processing industries. Environmental
issues that were raised by EPA have been incorporated into this document.
5.2.2 Issues for environmental assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Pressure on the natural
resource base
(effect on the overall
ecosystem operation)
Extraction of raw materials
Water consumption
Energy consumption
Prospect of employment-
influx of people
Unsustainable utilization of natural resources
eg water, trees, coal, soil
Water quality Discharges of solid/dissolved
substances eg mineral waste,
animal and vegetable waste,
waste-containing fibres,
hazardous waste
Pollution of ground & surface water, silting,
sedimentation, eutrophication
Soil quality Discharges of solid/dissolved
substances e.g. mineral
waste, animal and vegetable
waste, waste-containing
fibres, hazardous waste
Salinisation, pollution of soil
Air quality Emissions of dust
Emission of gases
Noise
Air pollution-damage or discomfort to natural
environment & humans
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Hazardous substances Environmentally hazardous
substances e.g. toxins,
carcinogenic substances,
ozone depleting substances,
explosive or inflammable
materials, radioactive
substances
Environmental health
Sensitive ecosystems /
species
Structure & layout of industrial
plant & roads
Barrier to migration & dispersal-isolation &
extinction
Expropriate important areas from fauna &
flora
Operation of industrial plant &
associated infrastructure
Threaten vulnerable, or conservation worthy
species
Introduction of exotic
species & pests
Transport - Introduction of
exotic species
Industrial site - Suitable living
conditions for pests
Exotics threaten indigenous species
Pests pose health risk
Associated
infrastructure
Transport-roads, traffic,
Power supply
Telecommunications
Pollution
Noise
Threat to pedestrian & animal safety
Threat to biodiversity
Soil erosion
Water pollution
Visual impacts
Maintenance of the
historical, cultural, or
religious landscape
Construction, operation of
industry
Intrusion in landscape
Migration of people
Negative impact on aesthetics
Destruction and/or damage to significant
buildings, areas
Change in social
structure and way of life
Location of industry Resettlement (See 6.10)
Introduction of industrial way
of life
Change in power structures
Shifts in division of labour between genders
Child labour
Rural-urban migration Slum settlements
Conflicts between new and old residents,
Change in land-use
Competition between
land-uses
Occupation of land, impacts of
industry
Negative economic impacts on other sectors
e.g. agriculture
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Human health Use, accidental discharge &
transportation of inflammable,
toxic, explosive, chemical
substances
Industrial activities such as
painting, welding,
electroplating, and battery
manufacture result in
exposure to heavy metals e.g.
lead, mercury, cadmium, zinc,
cobalt and beryllium
Noise
Factories that release mineral
dust e.g. silica and asbestos-
glass manufacturing industry,
foundry, cement, asbestos
plants
Factories that release organic
dust are those that process
grain, cotton, coffee, sisal,
wood etc.
Solvents in printing industry,
thinners in the manufacture of
paints & glues, dyes in
textiles, leather & shoes,
organic materials used in
chemical industries
Ill-health
Hearing impairment, disturbance of sleep in
the vicinity of the factory
Inhalation of dust in high doses over a long
duration can result in pneumoconiosis
(asbestosis & carcinoma of the lung)
Organic materials may cause kidney & liver
damage, haematopoietic system damage,
neurotoxicity and cancer.
Human safety Mechanical equipment
Explosions, fires e.g.
manufacture of chemicals
Injury, death
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5.2.3 Recommendations for Environmental Management
New industry to be sited at a sufficient distance from environmentally sensitive
areas wherever practically possible
Environmental monitoring during construction and operation
Implement an environmental management system which ensures environmental
responsibility at all levels
Utilize environmentally friendly technologies
Implement cleaner production strategy - alternative products, production
processes, raw materials, energy sources, prevent or reduce waste, waste
recycling, re-use
Introduce water and energy saving measures
Discharge points should be located downstream of supply sources of drinking
water
Delineation of location of waste dumps
Locate chimneys and waste pipes appropriately
Monitor volume and composition of discharges regularly
Ensure that sensitive environments, and residential areas will not be affected by
noise, especially at night
Reliable information system and a mechanism for labelling, handling, and stocking
of dangerous substances
Maintain safety equipment
Emergency proceduresRehabilitation upon closure of industry
Training programme to assist labour force in adapting to an industrial way of li
5.3 Transport
5.3.1 Background
The transport system constitutes one of the most vital component’s of a country’s physical
infrastructure and plays a significant strategic role in overall development. Surface
transport, comprising road and rail, is the major system in Ethiopia. The air transport
service is also growing. Surface transport contributes about 99.5% of the total domestic
passenger and cargo traffic delivered by motorized means of transportation. Road
transport accounts for over 97% of this total. In line with the Agricultural Development Led
Industrialization (ADLI) policy, the transportation sector is recognized as having a crucial
role to play in sustainable development of the country. The Road Sector Development
Programme has been created to speed up the improvement and expansion of the road
network. The Ethiopian Airline envisages a 70% increase in its carrying capacity by the
end of a five-year development plan period.
Transport normally confers scope for increased mobility, access to markets and public
services and other benefits of reduced isolation. However improved transport, whether by
new routes or through the rehabilitation and upgrading of existing ones may be
accompanied by adverse environmental impacts.
A transport system development will invariably impact on the natural environment in the
vicinity of the infrastructure. The severity of the impact and the possibility for adaptation to
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the impact and for undertaking mitigative measures depends on the characteristics of the
ecosystem, the transport system dimension and the traffic volume as well as the changes
the system brings about on settlement and land use.
These impacts can be differentiated according to whether they occur in the construction
phase or during the operating phase. The impacts can be direct at the site and immediate
environs or indirect in the adjoining region.
5.3.2 Issues for environmental assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN TRANSPORT PROJECTS
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Pollution
Environmental Health
Pesticide use
Construction machinery
Release of pesticides, used for removal and
clearing of vegetation, into the environment
Oil and grease discharge from machinery used in
construction
Waste and sewage disposal from temporary
worker settlements
Soil Erosion
Modification of water courses
Disturbance of riparian
ecosystems
Bridge and drain construction
Earthwork operations
Quarry and borrow site
operations
Diversion of waterways
Promotion of soil erosion through inappropriately
constructed drains
Construction of bridges across watercourses
change currents and increase erosion potential
Soil instability which can lead to landslides
Modification of water courses may affect the
functioning of riparian ecosystems
Modification of cultural resources
Aesthetics
Expropriation of land for
transport infrastructure
Creation of embankment cuts,
fills and quarries
Damage or loss of landscapes, cultural relics or
other significant sites
Pollution of soil, water and air
Environmental Health
Nuisance
Waste disposal
Secondary growth
Accidents
Vehicle emissions
Pollution caused by inadequate waste discharge
and treatment facilities in settlements developed
because of the project
Introduction of environmentally dangerous
substances into the environment during accidents
Increase in emission of gases and particles into
the atmosphere
Pollution of water sources and vulnerable
ecosystems by run-off water from the roads
Crop damage and health problems from excessive
dust creation
Noise problems for developments in proximity to
transport infrastructure
Barrier impacts created by
transport infrastructure
Impairment of habitat functioning
Disturbance of the natural
environment
Development of linear structures
in the environment
Impediment of movement and communication for
people and animals across transport artery
Fragmentation of habitats and human land use
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN TRANSPORT PROJECTS
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Degradation and loss of
ecosystems, biodiversity and
natural resources
Expropriation of the natural
environment for transport
infrastructure
Intrusive land use in the natural environment
Change in demography of animal and plant
species
Degradation of breeding areas for commercially
valuable fauna
Indirect impact of pollution on flora and fauna
outside the project area
Increased accessibility to natural areas
Creation of transmission corridors for alien
invasive species
Implications of future expansion of road projects
on natural resources
Modification of the way cities and villages expand
– urban sprawl
Loss of land which may result in resettlement or
land use conflicts
Induced development around transport
infrastructure
Increased availability of motorized alternatives
may adversely affect the non-motorized
transportation economy
“Culture shock” from exposure of secluded
communities to aggressive outside influences
Accidents
Noise
Health and safety Disturbance of settlements and significant sites
near the transport facility from noise
Explosions and fires during the transportation of
oil, gas or other dangerous substances
Increased accident risk for the public
Increased health problems relating to dust and
vehicle emissions
Creation of transmission corridors for diseases and
pests
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5.3.3 Recommendations for environmental management
Proper provision must be made for the management and disposal of waste and
sewage from temporary worker settlement
A clean-up programme must be instituted in the project area after the construction
phase is complete
Vulnerability of project area to erosion must be considered in the siting of transport
infrastructure
Excavation should not be undertaken during high erosion risk periods
Location for excavations for sand, gravel and stone for construction should be sited
away from erosion risk areas
Systems should be implemented to minimize erosion during construction
Design of drains and pipes must prevent erosion by water flowing off it on to the road
Significant sites or relics must be identified and preserved
Decrease visual impact by improving the design of transport facilities
Vulnerability of natural features such as riverbanks and coastlines to barriers should
be considered
Attempts must be made to protect valuable ecosystems
An accident response system should be put into place to support transport
infrastructure
Adequate compensation should be provided for people who are resettled
Good traffic control systems must be developed
Quarry and borrow sites should be rehabilitated after use
5.4 Mining
5.4.1 Background
The Ethiopian EPA defines mining as “all intrusions on nature with the objective of exploiting
mineral resources”. Ethiopia has various valuable deposits such as gold, construction,
industrial, and precious minerals, oil, and gas. The Ministry of Mines and Energy has a
geological map depicting where these deposits are located. The major mining activities are
limited to gold, soda-ash, construction minerals, oil, and gas. Mining results in disturbance of
the surface, underlying strata including aquifers, and the atmosphere. It has negative impacts
on the visual resources, biodiversity, soils, water, air quality, and noise levels; socio-economic
environment; archaeology; and poses risks of flooding, and seismic hazards. Mining
accounted for less than 3% of the GDP and less than 2% of merchandise exports in 1995.
However, a new economic policy has resulted in high investment in mining. This could result
in greater environmental damage.
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5.4.2. Issues for Environmental Management
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE MINING SECTOR
ISSUES SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACTS
Pressure on the natural resource base Extraction of raw materials
Water consumption
Energy consumption
Prospect of employment-influx of people
Unsustainable utilization of natural
resources e.g. water, trees, land
clearance
Water quality Mine water tailings
Non-conventional extraction techniques
Extraction of gold using mercury
Mineral dressing operations
Wastewater containing oil and other
chemicals
Discharge drainage-acid waste water
containing heavy metals
Washing & classification of sand, waste
water, rock dust & residues of explosives
Open pit water can contaminate fresh
surface waters
Blasting-nitrates & nitrites
Spillages & leakages of fuel & lubricants
from mechanical plants
Waste dumps
Toxic impacts on ground & surface water,
eutrophication
Health impacts to animals & humans
Affects other sectors e.g. drinking water,
irrigation, agriculture
Soil quality Extraction of sand & gravel from the river
bed
Clearing of vegetation exposes fertile
topsoil
Mining on slopes
Soil erosion
Air quality Open pit mining-extraction of sands &
gravels
Transport of sand & gravel on open
truck-dust discharges
Noise
Extraction-residue & slag which is
resuspended as dust through wind
erosion
Dust
Nuisance to settlements along main road
& close to quarry
Impacts on vegetation & humans
Extraction of coal through open pit
mining-incomplete combustion
Toxic organic substances
Sensitive ecosystems / species Borrow sites for open pit mining,
stockpiling areas, access tracks, &
quarries
Large facilities create barriers
Disturbance & replacement/
expropriation of the natural environment
Barriers to migration, dispersal result in
isolation and therefore threaten fauna &
flora
Introduction of exotic species & pests Transport-introduction of pests
Industrial site provides suitable living
conditions for pests
Threaten indigenous species
Pests pose health risk
Associated infrastructure Access roads Pedestrian & wildlife mortality
Maintenance of the historical, cultural, or
religious landscape
Intrusion in the landscape-
waste dumps, open pit mining, tailing
ponds, mining facilities
Migration of people
Negative impact on aesthetics & scenic
value
Vandalisation of unprotected relics
Change in social structure & way of life Labour-extraction of sand & gravel
Location of industry
Women & child labour
Change in power structures
Resettlement (See 6.10)
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE MINING SECTOR
ISSUES SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACTS
Employment: Rural-urban migration Slum settlements, urbanisation, conflicts
between newcomers & old residents
Strain on community services
Changes in land-use
Land-use Mining requires a large amount of land Conflicts with existing land-use and land
tenure system
Economy Initiation of other activities due to mining
Mining (vibration & blasting)
Stimulation of economy due to secondary
development
Interfere with other activities
Human safety Mechanical equipment, electrical energy,
Explosives
Accidental discharge of dangerous
substances
Injury
Human health Carcinogenic substances e.g. asbestos
Quartz dust, nickel dust
Radio-active substances
Heavy metals- lead,
mercury
Central nervous system disorder, acute
illness
Incomplete combustion of coal-Toxic
organic gases e.g. carbon monoxide
Headache, vertigo (small amts),
asphyxiation, and death (large amts)
Waste created during operations e.g.
gangue containing sulphides, tailings
containing sulphide
Hazardous to people & environment
Noise-mechanical plant operations &
blasting in open pit mining
Hearing impairment, disturbance of sleep
& psychosomatic illnesses
5.4.3. Recommendations for environmental management
Sufficient distance from vulnerable natural areas (including forests, historical sites,
water resources etc.)
Environmental management system to ensure environmental responsibility
Knowledge of local, national, and international environmental requirements
The following issues of health and safety are addressed in the Council of Ministers
Regulations on Mining Operation No. 182/1994, and Labour Proclamation No.
42/1993:
Protective clothing and equipment
Training
Medical facilities
Procedures for safe transport, storage, handling, and use of explosives and
chemicals
Notification of licensing authority upon serious accidents, and necessity for
mitigatory measures
All installations to be rendered safe upon termination of license
Closure and rehabilitation plan - e.g. sinking fund
The Council of Ministers Regulations on Mining Operation No. 182/1994 also forbids
mining in sensitive locations as outlined in the regulations
Wastes of hazardous products should be treated properly
Measure for reduction of discharges to the air
Location of discharge outlets for waste water, and of chimneys to ensure dispersal of
discharge substances
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Plan of operation which considers short and long-term pollution
Tailing ponds of adequate dimensions to withstand natural disasters
Management of hazardous waste to be in accordance with the strictest national and
international regulations and guidelines
Rehabilitation measures upon closure - sinking fund account
Geology of the area taken into account to prevent cave-ins or landslides
Safety zones around open pit mining facilities
Controlled use of dangerous substances
Emergency procedures in case of accidents
Water consumption to be in accordance with existing water use in the area
Utilise environmentally friendly technology
5.5 Dams and Reservoirs
5.5.1. Background
Dams and reservoirs are built for hydroelectric power generation, irrigation, domestic and
industrial water supply, fishery development, recreation and flood protection. Ethiopia is
endowed with rich water resources, which are divided into 111.1 billion m3 of annual surface
water run off, and approximately 2.9 billion m3 of ground water potential. However, a very
small fraction of the resource is available for use and the water supply can be short at specific
localities. According to 1990 estimates, clean water supply for domestic and municipal use
was provided to only 27.2% of the total population of 51.5 million people. According to the
Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia (CSE) only 1% of the water resource potential is used for
irrigated agricultural development and hydro-power generation.
The need for self-sufficiency in food through expansion of irrigated agriculture and fishery
resources, hydropower generation, provision of reliable water for domestic and municipal use
has been steadily increasing and become critical. All these development endeavours involve
construction of a large number of dams that might have significant adverse impacts on the
bio-physical and human environment. The Agricultural Led Industrialization Development
Strategy and new economic policy initiatives mean that dam and reservoir development
projects have been given high priority.
Dams and reservoirs may cause irreversible social and environmental damages over a wide
geographic area. Environmental impact assessment helps to identify such issues early
enough so that corrective measures, options, monitoring mechanisms can be incorporated in
the project’s design and implementation.
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5.5.2 Issues for environmental assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF DAM AND RESERVOIR PROJECTS
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
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Alteration of the microclimate Creation of a large surface area
for evaporation
Increase in evaporation leading to changes in
temperature, fog and annual rainfall pattern.
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Habitat loss
Degradation of the natural
environment
Exceeding the carrying
capacity of the natural
environment
Expropriation of land for the
development of dams and
reservoirs
Induced development
Utilisation of natural resources
Replacement of valuable habitats by the dam or
reservoir
Degradation of the natural environment during the
construction phase
Increased population exceeding the ecological carrying
capacity of the area
Increased pressure on natural resources due to new
activities
Encroachment of anthropogenic activities into
previously protected areas
Barrier impacts
Obstruction of migratory
pathways
Change in the water regime
Control of water flow patterns
Construction of obstructive
structures across water course
Effect of inundation, altered water flow or ground water
level on fauna and flora
Dam or associated infrastructure forming a barrier to
the movement of wildlife
Implications of water flow changes to natural vegetation
and wildlife
Obstruction of fish migration by technical installations
and regulation features
Disturbance of feeding and spawning ground of
valuable species of fauna and flora
Change in water regime
Reduced water quality and
increased pollution
Water consumption Increase or decrease in flood peaks
Reduction in the total water flow due to increased
evaporation
Reduced water quality due to a decrease in the water
flow
Pollution of water sources during the construction
phase
Increased concentration of nutrients leading to
uncontrolled eutrophication
Changes in the seasonal variation in the water flow
affects navigation, fishing, cultivation and the drinking
water supply downstream
Change in the groundwater level in the surrounding
area
Erosion
Sediment Transport
Changes in water flow Increased soil erosion in vulnerable areas
Acceleration of transport of sediments and nutrients in
the water course
Repercussions of sediment build-up to downstream
erosion, the backwater effect and flooding upstream
Loss of significant sites
Degradation of cultural relics
Expropriation of land for dam and
reservoir developments
Potential for submergence of culturally/ historically
significant sites or objects
Loss of visually appealing
sites
Aesthetics
Tourism potential
Disturbance of the natural
environment
Modification of the river system
Change in water course or water flow through physical
encroachment
Creation of “hill side scars”
Loss of tourist sites along the river
Displacement of people Expropriation of land for dam and
reservoir development
Potential for displacement of people and the
implications of moving (see section 5.10)
Accessibility
Utilization of water resources
Regulation of water flow Decreased accessibility to water for drinking, irrigation
or animal husbandry due to reductions in water flow
Changes in ground water level because of regulation
Water resource use conflict between up- and
downstream users
Creation of new livelihood
opportunities
Decrease in livelihood
opportunities downstream
Induced development around
dams
Downstream water use
Sediment trapping leading to decreased productivity in
agriculture and fishing
Changes in water regime negatively impacting on fish
Increased accessibility leading to new activities which
replace the natural environment
Establishment of a reservoir displacing other activities
to ecologically vulnerable areas
Population growth
Socio-cultural conflict
Induced development Induced growth of the population caused by the project
Potential conflict between new population groups and
the original inhabitants
Changes in the traditional lifestyle
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Increased pressure on natural resources
Risk of disease and infection
Accidents
Health and safety Creation of conditions favourable to growth of disease-
spreading organisms
Increase in spread of infection due to
population growth
Risk of reservoir being used as a drinking water source
and recipient of sewage
Material and personal loss through dam failure,
landslides and flood waves
Alteration of tectonic activity leading to earthquakes
and landslides
5.5.3 Recommendations for environmental management
Siting of the dam/reservoir must take into consideration the local earthquake and
faulting activity
which may cause breaching of the dam
Population resettlement requires careful planning
Potential uses of the dam/reservoir must be explored eg. Fisheries, irrigation,
hydroelectric power and recreation
Efforts must be made to minimize damage or loss of sites of
cultural/historical/ecological significance
Negative and positive impacts should be evenly distributed in society.
5.6 Tannery
5.6.1 Background
The leather and footwear industry contributed 639.6 million birr or 10.7% of gross value of
production (GVP) for Ethiopia in 1995/96. Among the manufacturing industries, the leather
industry is ranked third after food products and beverages, and textiles in terms of contribution
to GVP. However, it contributes over 90% (366.7 million birr) of the manufactured exports.
This is composed mainly of semi-finished leather and some leather articles.
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5.6.2 Issues for Environmental Assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE TANNERY SECTOR
ISSUES SOURCES/CAUSESS IMPACTS
Pressure on the natural resource base Extraction of raw materials
Water consumption
Energy consumption
Prospect of employment-influx of people
Unsustainable utilization of natural
resources
Water quality Arsenic & chlorobenzene Contamination of groundwater
Antimony & heavy metals Contamination of sediments
Process wastes-chromium sludge,
methylene chloride
Grease-rendering fleshing process-acid
wastes
Patent leather process-caustic wastes
Discharge wastes-liquid effluents-organic
matter, chromium, sulphide, ammonium,
and other salts
Water pollution
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Soil quality Solid & liquid waste-antimony, volatile
organic compounds, heavy metals,
chrome, salts
Contamination of soil,
Reduction of soil fertility
Air quality Solvents Air pollution
Foul odours
Powdered dyestuffs Dust
Sensitive ecosystems / species Structure & layout of industrial plant &
roads
Barrier to migration & dispersal-isolation
& extinction
Expropriation of areas from fauna & flora
Disposal of hazardous wastes Health of environment
Maintenance of the historical, cultural, or
religious landscape
Intrusion in the landscape
Migration of people
Negative impact on aesthetics & scenic
value
Vandalisation of unprotected relics
Way of life Labour Women & child labour
Change in power structures
Employment: Rural-urban migration Slum settlements, urbanisation, conflicts
between newcomers & old residents
Strain on community services
Changes in land-use
Competition between land-uses Industry requires a large amount of land Conflicts with existing land-use and land
tenure system
Economy Initiation of other activities Secondary development
Interfere with other activities Hinders development in other sectors
Human safety Mechanical hazards e.g. handling of raw
stock
Machine operations-especially multi-
cylinder machines, & drums used for
tanning & dyeing
Fatigue
Hand tools
Use of chemicals
Work in danger areas of computer-
operated machines
Physical stress, injuries
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE TANNERY SECTOR
ISSUES SOURCES/CAUSESS IMPACTS
Human health Mechanical hazards-handling of raw
stock (raw or wet hides)
Salt burns, dermatitis & other allergic
reactions, anthrax, rabies
Noise- Early stages of manufacture,
drumming, buffing, & throughput staking
Hearing impairment
Powdered dyestuffs
Vegetable powders
Dust
Carcinogens
Organic chemicals
Hydrogen sulphide-early stages of
tanning process/ accidental discharge of
sulphuric acid
Solvents & dyestuffs-shoe industry
Isocyanates-ingredient of polyurethane
(footwear)
Chrome oxide
Organic chemicals are toxic to humans
and environment
Hydrogen sulphide is highly toxic &
flammable
Solvents are harmful if inhaled, fire
hazard
Isocyanates are toxic
Chrome oxide can cause dermatitis,
allergies
Pesticides & preservatives to treat
bacterial damage & infestation-arsenic,
PCP
PCP is a carcinogen
5.6.3 Recommendations for Environmental Management
Implement an environmental management system which ensures environmental
responsibility at all levels
Implement cleaner production strategy
Avoid the use of hazardous pesticides or preservatives
Computerised measurement & dosing of process chemicals & dyestuffs
Controlled separation of discharge liquids adds to efficiency of recycling - reduction
of chrome consumption
Remove unwanted parts of hide/skin such as hair, trimmings & unusable bottom
splits before tanning. Can be profitably marketed as animal feeds / high humus-level
dressing for agricultural land
Use high exhaustion chemicals
United States EPA has established standards (1985) for the control of sulphides,
chromium & acidity
Replace solvents with water / foam in roller-coating or spraying
Liquid dyestuffs instead of powders
Safety committees should be formulated and procedures well-known
Proper identification of all chemicals
EC has codes of practice for operation of hazardous machines
Most countries have standards of 90 dB (A) for 8 hours of continuous exposure and
use of ear protectors, sound absorbent hoods etc
5.7 Textiles
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5.7.1 Background
In terms of gross value of production (GVP), textiles is second only to food and beverages in
the manufacturing industry with a total GVP of 701 million birr (11.7% of total GVP). The
textiles industry is second to the leather industry in export contribution earning 17 million birr
(4.2% of total).
5.7.2 Issues for Environmental Assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN THE TEXTILES SECTOR
ISSUES SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACTS
Pressure on the natural resource base Extraction of raw materials
Water Consumption
Energy Consumption
Prospect of employment-influx of people
Unsustainable utilization of natural
resources
Pollution - water, soil, air Discharge of non-biodegradable
effluents from mills (dyes, acids, bases,
salts, detergents, wetting agents, sizes
and finishes)
Colour
chemical oxygen demand
mineral salts
foaming
Solid wastes e.g. fibre Unsightly, may cause anaerobic sludge
layers
Organic compounds e.g. starch with high
biological oxygen demands
Increase cost of sewer discharge
Anaerobic conditions in receiving streams
Insecticides, pesticides Toxic to bacterial & aquatic life
Sensitive ecosystems / species Structure & layout of industrial plant &
roads
Barrier to migration & dispersal-isolation
& extinction
Expropriate important areas from fauna &
flora
Operation of industrial plant & associated
infrastructure
Threaten vulnerable, or conservation
worthy species
Maintenance of the historical, cultural, or
religious landscape
Intrusion in the landscape-
Migration of people
Negative impact on aesthetics & scenic
value
Vandalisation of unprotected relics
Way of life Labour Women & child labour
Change in power structures
Employment: Rural-urban migration Slum settlements,
urbanisation, conflicts between
newcomers & old residents
Strain on community services
Changes in land-use
Competition between land-uses Industry requires a large amount of land Conflicts with existing land-use and land
tenure system
Economy Initiation of other activities Stimulate secondary development
Interference with other economic sectors Retard other economic activities
Human safety Explosions, fires e.g. manufacture of
chemicals
Injury, death
Human health Noise Hearing impairment
Hazardous chemicals Toxic
5.7.3 Recommendations for Environmental Assessment
Industry to be sited at a sufficient distance from environmentally sensitive areas
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Environmental monitoring during construction and operation
Implement an environmental management system that ensures environmental
responsibility at all levels
Utilize environmentally friendly technologies
Implement cleaner production strategy - alternative products, production processes,
raw materials, energy sources, prevent or reduce waste, waste recycling, re-use
Introduce water and energy saving measures
Discharge points should be located downstream of supply sources of drinking water
Monitor volume and composition of discharges regularly
International Association for Research and testing in the Field of Textile Ecology
(Oeko -Tex) have developed European standards
Computerised measurement and dosing of chemicals & dyestuff
Ensure that sensitive environments, and residential areas will not be affected by
noise, especially at night
Reliable information system and a mechanism for labelling, handling, and stocking of
dangerous substances
Safety procedures to be understood well
Maintain safety equipment
Rehabilitation upon closure of industry
Training programme to assist labour force in adapting to an industrial way of life
5.8 Hydropower generation
5.8.1 Background
Ethiopia is one of the few African countries with the potential to produce hydroelectric and
geothermal power. As of mid-1991, however, no comprehensive assessment of this
potential was available, although some estimates indicate that the total potential could be as
much as 143 billion kilowatts. The main sources of this potential were thought to be the
Abay (Blue Nile, 79.9 billion kilowatts), the Shebele (21.6 billion kilowatts), and the Omo
(16.1 billion kilowatts). The remaining 25.9 billion kilowatts would come from rivers such as
the Tekeze, Awash, Baro, Genale and Mereb.
Electric power production in 1985/86 totalled 998.7 million kilowatts-hours, 83 percent of
which was produced by hydroelectric power installations. The regional electrical distribution
system includes and interconnected system and a self-contained system. By 1988 most
power generating sources, including all major hydroelectric power plants, were
interconnected in a power grid.
It is envisaged that hydropower will continue to be the dominant power source in Ethiopia.
The construction of more hydropower generating infrastructure is likely to occur along many
of the major rivers. These projects impact on a large spatial area and there impacts are felt
both upstream and downstream. For this reason, it is imperative that the impacts of
hydropower generation are carefully considered.
5.8.2 Issues for environmental assessment
46
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ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN HYDROPOWER GENERATION PROJECTS
ISSUES SOURCES/CAUSESS IMPACT
Impacts on livelihood
Water utilisation
Regulation of the water regime Decrease in fish catches
Transportation difficulties because of
low flow and river morphology changes
Flooding of agricultural land
Erosion of fertile river banks
Pollution of drinking water sources
Decreased water supply downstream
due to power-release policies
Intrusive impact on social systems in the
project area Involuntary resettlement
Induced development
Involuntary resettlement has been
treated as a separate issue (refer to
section 6.10)
Population influx may lead to social
conflict
Increased pressure on services and
infrastructure
Health and safety Stagnant water
Efficiency of dams
Spread of waterborne diseases
Accidental death through dam collapse
Encroachment into the natural
environment
Induced development Access routes may increase human
contact with natural areas, increasing
resource use, fire and erosion potential
Access encourages invasion and
competition from introduced plants, feral
animals and parasitic organisms
Change in water regime
Downstream water user rights
Disruption of river functioning
Regulation of water flow
Introduction of pollutants and salts into
the water
Trapping of sediments and nutrients in
dams and reservoirs due to decreased
current velocity
Decrease in sediment and nutrient
supply downstream which affects
agriculture
Disturbance of the river’s natural
processes of erosion and deposition -
increased erosion downstream
Loss of water through increased
evaporation
Decrease in downstream water supply
due to diversions and water transfers
Creation of stratification of the water
temperature in the dam
Development of acidic conditions in
anaerobic conditions from a change in
the bacterial population of the water
Increased concentration of pollutants
and salts in dam
Eutrophication of water bodies
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
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ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN HYDROPOWER GENERATION PROJECTS
ISSUES SOURCES/CAUSESS IMPACT
Damage to the natural environment
Pollution
Aesthetics
Construction operations
Waste production in temporary
settlements
Location of borrow areas and borrow
pits may increase soil erosion or disturb
sensitive environments
Air and water pollution may be created
by construction equipment, earth
movement
Waste disposal from temporary
settlements
Social conflict between residents of the
area and temporary workers
Siting of contractor facilities and other
infrastructure which might destroy the
natural landscape
Noise pollution
Encroachment of hydropower generating
infrastructure on the natural environment
Barrier impact of dams and reservoirs
built for hydropower generation
Damage to sensitive ecosystems
Disturbance of fauna and flora
Damage to aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems
Alteration of a free-flowing riverine
habitat into a lacustrine habitat
Disruption of ecosystem functioning
especially riparian ecosystems
Obstruction of migratory pathways for
fauna and flora
Decline in fisheries and
breeding/spawning areas along rivers
due to a curtailment of flooding
Explosive growth of floating or rooted
macrophytes which may impede
navigation, fishing or prevent turbine
operation
Decay of plants in anaerobic conditions
may lead to the formation of H2S gas
Changes in riparian communities to tree-
dominated vegetation
Introduction of exotic fish and plant
species which out compete indigenous
species in the changed environment
Siting of hydropower infrastructure Aesthetics
Tourism
Loss of river Sources/Causes which
could fill tourism potential
Visual impact of siting of hydroelectric
generation stations, lakes and
transmission lines
Loss of sites of archaeological/cultural
significance
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
5.8.3. Recommendations for environmental management
Siting of hydropower generating infrastructure must give consideration to :
sites of cultural/historical significance
sensitive ecosystems
places of religious/scientific value
tectonic activity
vulnerability of the area to erosion
Efforts must be made to minimize resettlement
A resettlement plan must be developed
Preference must be given to the employment of local people
Areas of rich or valuable biodiversity must be protected
Water regulation should consider the needs of downstream users
5.9 Irrigation projects
5.9.1 Background
Irrigation projects are closely tied in with agricultural and hydropower generation. By virtue of
these two facts, it is expected that many irrigation projects will be developed in Ethiopia,
especially under the ADLI policy.
5.9.2 Issues for environmental assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Impact on downstream users
Impact on groundwater users
Lowering/ rise of the ground water
table
Regulation of water flow
patterns
Water extraction for
irrigation
Poor water distribution
systems
Changes in low flow which negatively impact on
downstream users
Uncontrolled flooding causing damage downstream
Lowering of the ground water table Impact of lowered
ground water on water consumption by humans,
animals and plant life in the area
Effect of lowered ground water on springs
Potential rise of the water table through low irrigation
efficiency
Decreased water quality
Pollution concentration
Ground water salinisation
Change in river morphology
Water diversion for
irrigation
Agrochemical use
Pesticide use
Fertilizer use
Increase in pollution concentration because of
decreased low flow
Accumulation of toxic substances from increased
pesticide use
High levels of nitrates in the water from agrochemicals
Creation of anaerobic conditions through the decay of
organic substances
Saline ground water caused by water logged conditions
Poor saline drainage in areas of flat topography
Saline intrusions into fresh water systems
Impact of irrigation canals on river morphology
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ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Soil salinisation Fertilizers
Artificial methods of
watering to crops
Potential for soil salinisation to occur through :
introduction of salts in irrigated water
contribution of artificial fertilizers
rise in saline ground water
creation of a “humidity/salinity bridge” by a change
from rainfed to irrigation crops
change in soil properties such as damage to soil
structure
Soil structural collapse in specific soil types due to
accumulation of salts
Lowering of pH and accumulation of dangerous metals
by leached metals, released through a change from
rainfed to irrigation crops
Erosion
Sedimentation
Abstraction of water Impact of sediment transport on reservoir and
abstraction points downstream eg. blockage of canals
Change in river morphology from increases/decreases
in the sediment load
Soil susceptibility to runoff and erosion increased by
wetting of the land
Sensitive ecosystems
Animal migration
Habitat functioning
Disturbance of the natural
environment
Induced settlement
Changes in the aquatic ecosystems
Impact on sensitive or valuable ecosystems and
pollution sensitive organisms
Induced animal migration
Increased pressure for natural resources by induced
settlement of farmers
Impairment of wetland functioning with repercussions
for water quality downstream
Social conflict
Change in the socio-economic
state of the people
Induced development Change in the income and amenity of people
Increased human migration and settlement in the area
Changes in marketing and physical infrastructure
generated by the irrigation scheme
Increase in disease problems
Accidents
Health and safety Changes in movement of water, temperature or other
factors creating favourable conditions for pests and
disease-bearing organisms
Introduction of disease-bearing organisms into
previously unaffected areas through water distribution
patterns
Increased pressure on sanitation services
Increase in farming accidents
5.9.3. Recommendations for environmental management
The siting of an irrigation scheme must be decided so to avoid disturbance or
destruction of:
Sensitive or biologically rich ecosystems
Sites of cultural/historical significance
Settlements of religious or scientific value
Areas with flat topography or with high water tables that are at risk from
salinisation
Adequate health care facilities must be provided
On-going user involvement in the development of the project must be
encouraged
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
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Capacity of irrigation canals to transport sediment loads must be determined
Measures must be taken to prevent low irrigation efficiency caused by poor
water distribution or a poor rain system
management
Flood control measures should be implemented
5.10 Resettlement Projects
5.10.1 Background
Resettlement is a highly controversial activity that has implications for the socio-economic,
natural and political environments. Within the Ethiopian context, resettlement has been
associated with dam and reservoir projects, and more controversially with drought and famine
victims. At the height of drought and famine in Ethiopia in 1984, programs were implemented
to relocate millions of people from drought-stricken areas in order to combat drought, avert
famine and increase agricultural productivity. This process was highly criticized and the
program was a failure. The lasting implication of these projects was a negative image of
resettlement projects. Whilst resettlement has undeniable implications for change, these
projects can bring about positive changes for communities and the environment
The development of hydroelectric power in Ethiopia, in keeping with the Agricultural
Development Led Industrialisation will most likely require resettlement of people in the future.
For this reason, proper assessment, planning and management of resettlement projects is
essential. Due to the sensitivity associated with resettlement projects the following description
is simply an overview of the potential environmental issues associated with resettlement.
Resettlement should not be seen in isolation of the other development sectors. It has been
separated in this document to highlight its importance in terms of environmental assessment
projects in Ethiopia.
5.10.2 Issues for environmental assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN RESETTLEMENT PROJECTS
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Social adjustment by the
resettled community
Impacts on areas surrounding
the project site
Movement of people out of an
area
Production systems are dismantled
People are impoverished when their
productive assets or income sources are lost
Relocation to environments where people’s
productive skills are less applicable
Community institutions and social networks
are weakened
Kin groups are dispersed
Cultural identity, traditional authority and the
potential for mutual help are diminished
Loss of access to natural resources
Pressure on financial resources of individual
families
Huge financial implications for project owner
Losses arising from sentimental attachment
or aesthetic preference
Disrupted access to places of cultural
property e.g. pilgrimage centres and places
of worship
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN RESETTLEMENT PROJECTS
ISSUE SOURCES/CAUSES IMPACT
Relocation of cemeteries
Pressure on public infrastructure and social
services in host area
Homelessness
Marginalisation
Loss of access to common property and
shared resources
Decreased food security
Social disarticulation
Loss of integrity and identity of indigenous
cultures
Dependence on government
Increased government control over large
segments of society
Neglect of people not resettled
Stagnation of areas surrounding site from
which resettlement occurred
Under-utilization of resources in areas
surrounding project site
Increased pressure on infrastructure and
services in new settlement
Change in the host community Influx of new people into an area Greater competition for resources
Adverse impacts on host communities
Changes in community structures
Conflict between resettled and host
populations
Spread of disease and pests Health and safety Erosion of health status
Psychological stress relating to displacement
and loss of community identity
Increased spread of disease through high
population density and poor health and
sanitation facilities
Introduction of new diseases and pests to
the resettled and host communities
Overutilization of natural
resources
Pollution
Soil damage
Habitat loss
Encroachment into the natural
environment
Consumption of natural
resources
Impact of increased population density in
relocation area
Encroachment into natural environments
Transportation capacity put under pressure
Problems with access to potable water
Overgrazing leading to nutrient-deficiencies
and soil damage
Soil erosion through land clearance
Pollution of the environment by exceeding
the capacity of natural services
Deforestation
Loss of biological diversity through
encroachment and increased reliance
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
5.10.3 Recommendations for environmental management
Minimize resettlement as far as possible
Carry out detailed plans for compensation and resettlement
Discourage entrepreneurial intervention that might deplete the level of compensation
reaching the resettlement people
Develop a long term support program for the resettled
Encourage public participation and ensure that displaced people are informed about the
options and rights
Provide structures for consultation with the host communities and local government and
for conflict resolution
Select replacement sights with a combination of productive potential, locational
advantage and other factors at least equivalent to the advantages of the old site
Ensure that adequate infrastructure and services are provided in the host community to
meet the needs of the resettled community
The carrying capacity of the host area must be determined
Provide people displaced by a project with the means to improve, or at least restore,
their former living standards, earning capacity, and production levels
As far as possible provide land-for-land compensation
Resettlement must ensure equal rights to women, children and indigenous populations
and other vulnerable groups
Create a long term monitoring system with the establishment of performance criteria
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
APPENDIX 1 : SCHEDULE OF ACTIVITIES
Schedule 1. Projects which may have adverse and significant environmental impacts, and
may, therefore, require full EIA.
A. Social infrastructure and service
1. Rural and Urban water supply and sanitation
- Construction of dams, impounding reservoirs with a surface area of 100 hectors
- Ground water development for industrial, agricultural or urban water supply of greater
than 4000 m3 /day
- Canalization and flood-relief works (large scale)
- Drainage Plans in towns close to water bodies
2. Waste Disposal
- Waste disposal installations for the incineration, chemical treatment or land fill of toxic,
hazardous and dangerous wastes
- Installation for the disposal of industrial waste
- Land fill site for waste disposal in major urban centre
3. Urban Development
- Hospital and educational facilities (large scale)
- Housing development covering an area of 50 hectares or more
- Designation of new towns, village and residential area
- Establishment of industrial estates
- Establishment or expansion of recreational areas in mountain areas, Parks and game
reserves
- Shopping centres, complexes and establishment of open air market area in major urban
centres
- Establishment of bus and rail terminal
B. Economic infrastructure and services
4. Transport
- Major urban roads
- Rural road programmes
- Rail infrastructure and railways
- Airports with a basic runway length of 2,100 m or more
- Trans-regional and International high way
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5. Energy
- High power transmission line
- Large bio-mass energy using plants
- Thermal power stations and other combustion installations with a heat output of 100
Mega Watts or more
- Hydroelectric power having dams over 15 meters high and ancillary structures covering
a total area in excess of 20 hectares and/or reservoirs with a surface area in excess of
250 hectares
- Construction of combined cycle power station
C. Production Sector
6. Agriculture
- Land reclamation (large scale)
- Agricultural Projects necessitating the resettlement of 100 families or more
- Development of agricultural estates covering an area of 500 hectares or more involving
changes in type of agricultural use
- Use of new pesticide or fertilizer other than those recognized or specified by the
concerned government body
- Agricultural mechanization and other services (large scale)
- Introduction of new breed, species of crops, seeds or animals
7. Irrigation and Drainage
- Construction of dams and man made lakes and artificial enlargement of lakes with
surface area of 250 hectares or more
- Surface water fed irrigation projects covering more than 100 hectares
- Ground water fed irrigation projects more than 100 hectares
- River diversions and water transfers between catchment
- Drainage area of Forestry wetlands or wildlife habitat covering an area of 10 hectares or
more
- Dams and man made impoundment in low land areas covering an area of 100 hectares
or more
8. Forestry
- Conversion of hill forest land to other land use
- Logging or conversion of forest land to other land use with in the catchment area of
reservoirs used for municipal water supply, irrigation or hydropower generation or in
areas adjacent to parks
- Logging with special emphasis for endangered tree species
- Conversion of mangrove swamps for industry, housing or agricultural use covering an
area of more than 10 hectares
- Clearing mangrove swamps on islands adjacent to parks
- Large scale afforestation/reforestation mono-culture forest plantation projects which use
exotic free species
- Conversion of forest areas which have a paramount importance of biodiversity
conservation to other land use
- Resettlement programs in natural forest and wood land areas.
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
9. Livestock
- Large scale open range rearing of cattle, horses, sheep etc
- Large scale livestock production in Urban area
- Large scale slaughter house construction
10. Fisheries
- commercial fisheries
- introduction of exotic species
11. Minerals extraction and processing
Large scale Mining Operation
Which the annual run of mine ore exceed:-
a. Gold, platinum and silver and other precious and semi precious minerals.
- 100,000m3 for placer operation
- 75,000 tons for primary deposit mining
b. Metallic minerals such as Iron, Lead, Copper, Nickel
- 150,000 tons for open pit mining
- 75,000 tons for under ground mining operations
c. Industrial minerals such as kaolin, bentonite, diatomite, dolomite, quartz and coal
- 120,000 tons
d. Construction Minerals
- 80,000m3 for sand, gravel, pumice, stone, clay and the like
- 10,000m3 for dimension stones such as marble and granite
e. Mineral Water
- 20,000m3
f. Thermal Water
- 2,000,000m3 for bathing, recreational and medicinal purposes
- 25 Mega Watt, or geothermal steam capable of generating equivalent power for
industrial and other purposes
g. Extraction of salts from brines
- 14,000 tons
h. Large scale quarry site of construction minerals near to large population centre.
12. Petroleum
- Oil and gas fields development
- Construction of off shore pipe lines in excess of 50 km in length
- Construction of oil and gas separation, processing, handling and storage facilities
- Construction of product depots for storage of petroleum, gas or diesel (excluding service
stations) which are located with in 3 km of any commercial or residential areas and
which have a combined storage capacity of 60,000 barrels or more
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
13. Industry
- Petrochemicals - (all size)
- Chemical where production capacity of each product or of combined products is greater
than 50 tons/day
- Installations for the production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, including smelting,
refining, drawing rolling and surface treatment (all size)
- Installations for the extraction and processing of asbestos and cement products
- Manufacture or transport of pesticides or other hazardous and/or toxic materials
- Manufacturing of agricultural chemicals in puts (all sizes)
- Agro industry (large scale) such as sugar cane industries
- Beverage industries (large scale)
- Textile industries (large scale)
- Manufacture of rubber and plastic products (large scale)
- Manufacture of glass and glass products (large scale)
- Manufacture of electrical machinery apparatus, appliances and supplies
- Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture (large scale)
- Tannery and leather dressing factories (large scale)
Schedule 2. Projects whose type, scale or other relevant characteristics have potential to
cause some significant environmental impacts but not likely to warrant an
environmental impact study.
A. Social infrastructure and services
1. Rural and Urban water supply and sanitation
- Rural water supply and sanitation
- Land drainage (small scale)
- Sewerage system
2. Waste disposal
- Recycling plant (small scale)
3. Urban development
- Housing and commercial projects
- Cemetery site and establishment of religious institutions
B. Economic Infrastructure and Services
4. Transport
- Upgrading or rehabilitation of major rural roads
- Airports with basic runway length less than 2,100m
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
5. Energy
- Thermal power stations and other combustion installations with a heat output of less
than 300 mega watts
- Electricity transmission lines
- Hydropower projects having dam height less than 15 meters and reservoirs with a
surface area less than 250 hectares
C. Production sector
6. Agriculture
- Wide spread introduction of fertilizers
- Pest control programmes (large scale)
7. Irrigation
- Surface water fed irrigation projects covering less than 100 hectares
- Ground water fed irrigation projects covering less than 100 hectares
8. Forestry
- Protected forest reserves (large scale)
- Agro forestry (large scale)
- Productive forest reserves (large scale)
9. Livestock
- Intensive rearing of cattle (>50 heads); pigs (>100 heads); or poultry (>500 heads)
- Establishment of animal feed (large scale)
- Livestock fattening projects (large scale)
- Bee keeping projects (large scale)
10. Fisheries
- Artesian fisheries (large scale)
- Introduction of new harvesting technology
11. Mineral extraction and processing
- Small scale mining operations
12. Industry
- Agro-industries, including manufacturing of vegetable and animal oils and fats
- Manufacture, packing and canning of animal, fish and vegetable products
- Industries utilizing hazardous materials (small scale)
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
Schedule 3. Projects which would have no impact and does not require environmental
impact assessment
A. Social infrastructure and services
- Educational facilities (small scale)
- Audio visual production
- Teaching facilities and equipment
- Training
- Medical centre (small scale)
- Medical supplies and equipment
- Nutrition
- Family planning
B. Economic infrastructure and services
- Telecommunication
- Research
C. Production Sector
i Irrigation
- Surface water fed irrigation projects covering less than 50 hectares
- Ground water fed irrigation projects covering less than 50 hectares
ii Agriculture
- All small scale agricultural activities
iii Forestry
- Protected forest reserves (small scale)
- Productive forest reserves (small scale)
iv Livestock
- Rearing of cattle (<50 heads); pigs (<100 heads), or poultry (<500 heads)
- Livestock fattening projects (small scale)
- Bees keeping projects (small scale)
v Fisheries
- Artesian fisheries (small scale)
vi Industry
- Agro industrial (small scale)
- Other small scale industries having no impact to the environment
vii Trade
- All trades except trade in endangered species and hazardous material
viii Financial assistance
- Programme assistance
- Non-project or special country support
- Food aid
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
ix Emergency Operations
- Assistance to refugee returned and displaced person
D. All projects involved in environmental enhancement programmes
All projects in environmentally sensitive areas should be treated as equivalent to Schedule 1
activities irrespective of the nature of the project. Sensitive areas may include:
- Land prone to erosion
- Land prone to desertification
- Areas which harbour protected, threatened or endangered species
- Areas of particular historic or archaeological interest
- Primary forests
- Wetland of national or international importance
- National Park and protected area
- Important landscape
- Religiously important area
APPENDIX 2 : EXAMPLE OF AN APPLICATION FORM
APPLICATION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AUTHORISATION Page: 1
For official use
only
Federal Application No:
Regional Date received:
Responsible official:
PARTICULARS OF APPLICANT
Name of applicant:
Contact Person:
Postal Address:
Postal Code:
Telephone No: Facsimile No:
Cellular No: E-mail address
TITLE OF PROPOSED ACTIVITY
DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED ACTIVITY
(please append if insufficient space provided)
LOCATION OF PROPOSED ACTIVITY
Region:
Nearest town:
Name of property(s):
Extent of property(s):
APPLICATION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AUTHORISATION Page: 2
PROBLEMATIC ISSUES IDENTIFIED
(please append if insufficient space provided)
CONSULTANT
I propose to make use of the following consultant:
Name of consultant:
Contact Person:
Postal Address:
Postal Code:
Telephone No: Facsimile No:
Cellular No: E-mail address
SIGNATURES
Applicant: Date: Place:
Witness: Date: Place:
Witness: Date: Place:
APPENDIX 3 : STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES FOR WATER AND AIR OF RELEVANCE
IN ETHIOPIA
SOUTH AFRICAN WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
AND GUIDELINES FOR DOMESTIC USE
DETERMINAND SABS 241 SPECIFICATIONS * DWAF WATER
QUALITY
GUIDELINES **
UNITS
Recommended
limit
Maximum
allowable limit
Target water quality
range
Turbidity 1 5 36159 NTU
Colour 20 - 15 Pt-Co
units
Odour and taste not objectionable not objectionable 1 TON
pH 6.0-9.0 5.5-9.5 6.0-9.0 pH units
Conductivity 70 300 - mS/m
Total Hardness 20-300 - 50-100 mg/l as
CaCO3
Calcium - - 0-32 mg/l
Magnesium 70 100 0 mg/l as
Mg
Sodium 100 400 0-100 mg/l
Potassium - - 0-50 mg/l
Chloride 250 600 0-100 mg/l
Sulphate 200 600 0-200 mg/l as
SO4=
Ammonia - - 0-1.0 mg/l
Nitrate and nitrite 6 10 36310 mg/l N
Dissolved
Organic Carbon
- - 36279 mg C/l
Fluoride 1 1.5 0-1.0 mg/l
Zinc 1 5 36218 mg/l
Aluminium - - 0-0.15 mg/l
Arsenic 100 300 0 ug/l
Cadmium 10 20 36279 ug/l
Copper 0.5 1 36159 mg/l
Chromium (VI) - - 0-0.05 mg/l
Cyanide 0.2 0.3 - mg/l
Iron 0.1 1 0-0.1 mg/l
Lead 0.05 0.1 0-0.01 mg/l
Manganese 0.05 1 0-0.05 mg/l
Mercury 5 10 36159 ug/l
Phenolic
compounds
5 10 36159 ug/l
Selenium 0.02 0.05 - mg/l
Total coliform
bacteria
0 5 36279 Counts/
100ml
Faecal coliform
bacteria
0 0 0 Counts/
100ml
Standard Plate
Count
100 - 0-100 Counts/
1ml
Coliphages - - 36159 Counts/
100ml
* South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) 241 - 1984 : Specification for water for domestic
supplies
**Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) - South African Water Quality Guidelines,
Volume 1 : Domestic Water Use, Second edition, 1996
SOUTH AFRICAN GROUNDWATER QUALITY STANDARDS
AND GUIDELINES FOR DOMESTIC USE
DETERMINAND
SABS 241
SPECIFICATIONS *
DWAF WATER
QUALITY
GUIDELINES **
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR BOREHOLE
WATER FOR POTABLE USE ***
UNITS
Recommen
ded limit
Maximum
allowable
limit
Target water
quality range
Class 0 Class 1 Class 11 Class 111
Turbidity 1 5 36159 - - - - NTU
Colour 20 - 15 - - - - Pt-Co units
Odour and taste not
objectionabl
e
not
objectionabl
e
1 - - - - TON
pH 6.0-9.0 5.5-9.5 6.0-9.0 6.0-9.0 5.0-9.5 4.5 to 9.5-10 <4 to >10 pH units
Conductivity 70 300 - 0-70 70-150 150-370 > 370 mS/m
Total Hardness 20-300 - 50-100 - - - - mg/l as
CaCO3
Total Dissolved Solids - - - 0-450 450-1000 1000-2450 > 2450 mg/l
Calcium - - 0-32 - - - - mg/l
Magnesium 70 100 0 0 30-70 70-100 > 100 mg/l as Mg
Sodium 100 400 0-100 0-100 100-200 200-400 > 400 mg/l
Potassium - - 0-50 - - - - mg/l
Chloride 250 600 0-100 0-100 100-200 200-600 > 600 mg/l
Sulphate 200 600 0-200 0-200 200-400 400-600 > 600 mg/l as SO4=
Ammonia - - 0-1.0 - - - - mg/l
Nitrate and nitrite 6 10 36310 36279 36438 36452 > 20 mg/l N
Dissolved Organic
Carbon
- - 36279 - - - - mg C/l
Fluoride 1 1.5 0-1.0 0-1.0 1.0-1.5 1.5-3.5 > 3.5 mg/l
Zinc 1 5 36218 0-3 3-5 5-10 > 10 mg/l
Aluminium - - 0-0.15 - - - - mg/l
Arsenic 100 300 0 0-10 10-50 50-200 > 200 ug/l
Cadmium 10 20 36279 0-5 5-10 10-20 > 20 ug/l
Copper 0.5 1 36159 - - - - mg/l
Chromium (VI) - - 0-0.05 - - - - mg/l
Cyanide 0.2 0.3 - - - - - mg/l
Iron 0.1 1 0-0.1 0-0.1 0.1-0.2 0.2-2 > 2 mg/l
Lead 0.05 0.1 0-0.01 - - - - mg/l
Manganese 0.05 1 0-0.05 0-0.05 0.05-0.1 0.1-1 > 1 mg/l
Mercury 5 10 36159 - - - - ug/l
Phenolic compounds 5 10 36159 - - - - ug/l
Selenium 0.02 0.05 - - - - - mg/l
Total coliform bacteria 0 5 36279 - - - - Counts/
100ml
Faecal coliform bacteria 0 0 0 0 36159 36433 > 10 Counts/
100ml
Standard Plate Count 100 - 0-100 - - - - Counts/1ml
Coliphages - - 36159 - - - - Counts/
100ml
* South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) 241 - 1984 : Specification for water for domestic supplies
**Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) - South African Water Quality Guidelines, Volume 1 : Domestic Water Use, Second edition,
1996
*** Institute for Water Quality Studies (IWQS), Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 1996
Classification system for assessment of suitability of Borehole Water for potable use
(Institute for Water Quality Studies, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 1996)
Classification Levels with regards to health effects are divided into four classes as follows:
Class 0 : Ideal water quality suitable for life time use (multiple generation use) and has no detrimental health effects.
Class I : In this range of concentration the key constituents will only in rare instances cause detrimental effects on health either in the short
or long term, and is suitable for use for an entire lifetime. This is the class of safe water quality.
Class II : In this range of concentration, health effects may occur with long term use, but the short term detrimental health effects are either
mild or rare. This class is essentially the concentration acceptable for short term or emergency use.
Class III : This is the concentration where serious health effects may be anticipated, particularly in infants, with short term use. The water
quality in this class is not suitable for use unless an appropriate treatment process is used to remove the offending constituents,
thus changing the water quality to a safer class (ie, I or II).
The criteria used to classify a borehole in the specific classes are as follows:
If the concentration of any constituent for any sample for a specific borehole falls in Class III, the borehole is classified as a Class III
borehole.
If the concentration of any constituent for any sample for a specific borehole falls in Class II, and none in Class III, the borehole is classified
as a Class II borehole.
The upper value of Class I is used as the cut off value to determine whether a borehole would fall in Class I and also include Class 0 which
is the ideal water quality.
Note: This list is not comprehensive, and lists those constituents most commonly responsible for water quality problems in groundwater. Other
constituents may cause health effects.
SOUTH AFRICAN AIR QUALITY LIMITS
Maximum allowable concentration for the most common pollutants
POLLUTANT
GUIDELINE CONCENTRATION
Instant peaks 1-hour avg 24-hour avg 1-month avg annual avg UNITS
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.05 0.03 ppm
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.08 0.05 ppm
Ozone (O3) 0.25 0.12 - - - ppm
Particulate <10 micrometers (PM-10) - - 180 - 60 ug/m3
Lead (Pb) - - - 2.5 - ug/m3
NOX 104 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.2 ppm
Nitrous oxide (NO) 0.9 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.15 ppm
Total suspended solids (Hi-vol) - - 300 - 100 ug/m3
Smoke (from CSIR Soiling index) - - 250 - 100 ug/m3
ppm = parts per million
ug/m3 = parts per billion (ppb)
Dust fall-out (deposition):
Slight : less than 0.25 g/m2/day
Moderate : 0.25 to 0.50 g/m2/day
Heavy : 0.50 to 1.2 g/m2/day
Very heavy : more than 1.20 g/m2/day
(Above 24-hour limits not to be exceeded for more than 3 times per year)
USA EPA STANDARDS:
POLLUTANT
STANDARD VALUE
1-hour avg 3-hour avg 8-hour avg 24-hour avg Quarterly avg Annual
Arithmetic Mean
UNITS
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) - 0.5 - 0.14 - 0.03 ppm
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) - - - - - 0.053 ppm
Ozone (O3) 0.12 - 0.08 - - - ppm
Particulate <10 micrometers
(PM-10)
- - - 150 - 50 ug/m3
Particulate <2.5 micrometers
(PM-2.5)
- - - 65 - 15 ug/m3
Lead (Pb) - - - - 1.5 - ug/m3
Carbon monoxide (CO) 35 - 9 - - - ppm
WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (WHO) AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES FOR “CLASSICAL COMPOUNDS”:
POLLUTANT
GUIDELINE VALUE
1-hour avg 8-hour avg 24-hour avg Annual avg UNITS
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) - - 125 50 ug/m3
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 200 - 40 - ug/m3
Ozone (O3) - 120 - - ug/m3
Lead (Pb) - - - 0.5 ug/m3
Carbon monoxide (CO) 30 000 10 000 - - ug/m3
FINLAND AMBIENT AIR GUIDELINES:
POLLUTANT
GUIDELINE VALUE
1-hour avg 8-hour avg 24-hour avg Annual avg UNITS
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 250 - 80 20 ug/m3
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 150 - 70 30 ug/m3
Particulate <10 micrometers (PM-10) - - 70 - ug/m3
Carbon monoxide (CO) 20 8 - - ug/m3
Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) - - 120 50 ug/m3
BELGIUM AIR QUALITY STANDARDS:
POLLUTANT
GUIDELINE VALUE
1-hour avg 8-hour avg 24-hour avg Annual avg UNITS
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) - - 100-150 40-60 ug/m3
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 135-200 - - - ug/m3
Ozone (O3) 180-360 110 65 - ug/m3
Lead (Pb) - - - 2 ug/m3
AUSTRALIAN AMBIENT AIR QUALITY OBJECTIVES:
Air quality goals recommended by the National Health and Medical Research Council
POLLUTANT
GUIDELINE VALUE
1-hour avg 8-hour avg Quarterly avg Annual avg UNITS
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) - - - 60 ug/m3
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 320 - - - ug/m3
Ozone (O3) 240 - - - ug/m3
Lead (Pb) - - 1.5 - ug/m3
Carbon monoxide (CO) - 10 - - ug/m3
Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) - - - 90 ug/m3
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF THIS DOCUMENT
CHAPTER 2 : ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIA
2.1 Background
2.2 Legislative and Policy context
2.3 EIA Objectives and Principles
2.4 The Competent Agency
2.5 Scheduled activities
CHAPTER 3 : THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS
3.1 Roles and Responsibilities
3.1.1 Proponent
3.1.2 Consultant
3.1.3 Interested and affected parties
3.1.4 Competent Agency
3.2 Pre-screening consultation
3.3 Screening
3.4. Scoping
3.5 Environmental Impact Assessment
3.6 Record of decision and appeal
3.7 Conditions of approval
3.8. Auditing
CHAPTER 4 : STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES
ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA
CHAPTER 5 : ISSUES FOR SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN ETHIOPIA
5.1 Agriculture
5.1.1 Background
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
5.1.3. Recommendations for environmental management
5.2 Industry
5.2.1 Background
5.2.2 Issues for environmental assessment
5.2.3 Recommendations for Environmental Management
5.3 Transport
5.3.1 Background
5.3.2 Issues for environmental assessment
ISSUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT IN TRANSPORT PROJECTS
5.3.3 Recommendations for environmental management
5.4 Mining
5.4.1 Background
5.4.2. Issues for Environmental Management
IMPACTS
5.4.3. Recommendations for environmental management
5.5 Dams and Reservoirs
5.5.1. Background
5.5.2 Issues for environmental assessment
5.5.3 Recommendations for environmental management
5.6 Tannery
5.6.1 Background
5.6.2 Issues for Environmental Assessment
5.6.3 Recommendations for Environmental Management
5.7 Textiles
5.7.1 Background
5.7.2 Issues for Environmental Assessment
5.7.3 Recommendations for Environmental Assessment
5.8 Hydropower generation
5.8.1 Background
5.8.2 Issues for environmental assessment
5.8.3. Recommendations for environmental management
5.9 Irrigation projects
5.9.1 Background
5.9.2 Issues for environmental assessment
5.9.3. Recommendations for environmental management
5.10 Resettlement Projects
5.10.1 Background
5.10.2 Issues for environmental assessment
5.10.3 Recommendations for environmental management
SIMPLIFIED EIA PROCEDURAL FLOW IN ETHIOPIA
IC submits proposal to undertake
aractity i Assessment Agencies
a
‘Assessinent Agencies decide whether the
proposal's acceplable a whether BIA s Tequred
Gecision
PP = Project Proponent
CA =CompetentAuthority
IG_= Independent Consultant
Eip = Environmental impact Report
Phone numbers
- 115010
- 15362180335510
- 205014003
- 21507030
- 3012008
- 102036279055101020
- 260
- 7010000307070100
- 1018060
- 61036310
- 2060301005003
- 22508020
- 510005000500501011
- 2006000200
- 110010010102022
- 1070
- 20060002000200200400400600
- 450450100010002450
- 2135200
- 9060302015
- 102036279
- 510005
- 21001504060
- 1003000010105050200
- 2506000100
- 2030050100
- 7030007070150150370
- 212550
- 2411984
- 3025012
- 10408040302
- 3000010000
- 3615936433
- 1000100
- 61036310362793643836452
- 25060001000100100200200600
- 51036159
- 10040001000100100200200400
- 1004000100
- 220040
- 11501001010151535
- 20053
- 5010001
- 318036011065
- 6090559560906090509545
- 609055956090
- 2050201008005
Phone numbers
- 70 100 0 0 30-70 70-100
- 3) 180-360 110 65
- 100 400 0-100
- 450 450-1000 1000-2450
- 6.0-9.0 5.5-9.5 6.0-9.0
- 5 10 36159
- 2) 200 - 40
- 250 600 0-100 0-100 100-200 200-600
- 200 600 0-200 0-200 200-400 400-600
- 2) - - - 60
- 2) - - 125 50
- 2) 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.08 0.05
- 36159 36433
- 20-300 - 50-100
- 2) 150 - 70 30
- 6.0-9.0 5.5-9.5 6.0-9.0 6.0-9.0 5.0-9.5 4.5
- 1 5 36218 0-3 3-5 5-10
- 5 0.1 0-0.01
- 104 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.2
- 2) - 0.5 - 0.14 - 0.03
- 2) - - 100-150 40-60
- 10) - - 70
- 2) 250 - 80 20
- 5 1 0-0.05
- 3) 0.25 0.12
- 1 1 0-0.1 0-0.1 0.1-0.2 0.2-2
- 250 600 0-100
- 100 400 0-100 0-100 100-200 200-400
- 6 10 36310
- 200 600 0-200
- 100 300 0 0-10 10-50 50-200
- 10 20 36279 0-5 5-10 10-20
- 10) - - 180 - 60
- 1 1.5 0-1.0
- 1 1.5 0-1.0 0-1.0 1.0-1.5 1.5-3.5
- 2) 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.05 0.03
- 10 20 36279
- 70 300 - 0-70 70-150 150-370
- 5 1 0-0.05 0-0.05 0.05-0.1 0.1-1
- 2) - - - - - 0.053
- 241 - 1984
- 2) 135-200
- 3) 0.12 - 0.08
- 9 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.15
- 6 10 36310 36279 36438 36452
- 100 - 0-100
- 30 000 10 000
Law clause
- Section 2.4
- section 6
- Section 3
- Section 2.4,
- Article 44
- section 5
- Section 3.1.
- Section 3.6)
- Article 43
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