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2021-08-06T16:02:51Z
Republic of Ethiopia (2004) EPA Guidelines on crop production.pdf
:

Republic of Ethiopia (2004) EPA Guidelines on crop production


The Federal Environmental Protection Authority

Guidelines on Crop production

NOT FOR CITATION

This guidelines is still under development and shall be
binding after consensus is reached between the
Environmental Protection Authority and the Environmental
Units of Competent Sectoral Agencies


Ethiopia


Table of Content
Page

INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1

1. MAJOR TYPES OF INTERVENTION IN THE CROP PRODUCTION SUB-

SECTOR...................................................................................................................................1

2. SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF CROP PRODUCTION PROJECT..........2

3. MAJOR ISSUES RELATED TO CROP PRODUCTION PROJECT....................3

4. POTENTIAL IMPACTS, ENHANCEMENT AND MITIGATION MEASURES 6

4.1 POVERTY......................................................................................................................6

4.2 ENVIRONMENT.............................................................................................................8

4.3 POPULATION...............................................................................................................11

4.4 HEALTH OUTCOMES...................................................................................................13

4.5 GENDER......................................................................................................................16

4.6 PARTICIPATION...........................................................................................................17

5. EXTERNAL FACTORS............................................................................................18

6. HAZARD MANAGEMENT......................................................................................19


INTRODUCTION

These guidelines cover food crops and export/industrial crops (cash crops). They do not

consider agro-industries, nor irrigation projects which are discussed in the “Irrigation

Guidelines”. Crop productions operations analysed in these Guidelines encompass rainfed

and irrigated production process including post-harvest activities (storage, processing, and

commercialisation).

These guidelines aim to assist in developing crop production projects that can address the

themes of sustainability. They highlight major issues and potential impacts that should be

taken into account during the preparation and assessment phases. The appropriate

enhancement and mitigation measures should be integrated as early as possible, preferably

in the project design.

1. Major Types of Intervention in the Crop Production Sub-Sector

Crop production projects refer to sowing, transplanting, growing and harvesting plant

material, including food crops and export/industrial crops.

Food crops include cereals (e.g.: wheat, rice, maize and sorghum) and non-cereals (e.g.:

roots/tubers, pulses, groundnuts and bananas/plantains). In these guidelines, both food

crops produced under rainfed and irrigated conditions are considered. Generally, this

production involves extensive food production systems with low-level of agricultural inputs.

Irrigated crops are produced in irrigation schemes developed to increase agricultural

production and producer income.

Industrial/export food crops are grown in a variety of agro-ecological zones, in highlands and


Guidelines) and heavy machinery for ploughing, sowing and harvesting.

Crop production projects can be part of integrated rural development, watershed

management, and agroforestry projects. They often include the following technical facilities

and components:

 water management infrastructures;

 transport facilities;

 crops storage facilities;

 feeder roads.

2. Specific Characteristics of Crop Production Project

The description and justification of an irrigation project a crop production project shall at least

cover the following elements:

 Project layout including a site location map.

 Criteria for selecting project beneficiaries among local people, migrants, women/men,

poor people and other vulnerable groups.

 Legal and contractual arrangements, including land tenure, land ownership and water

rights.

 Affected groups (directly and indirectly).

 Socio-cultural factors or constraints, such as customs and beliefs.

 Natural and human resources needs.

 Source of water and water management.

 Preparation activities (feeder roads, land clearing and preparation, burning, ploughing,

construction of facilities, etc.).

 Anticipated liquid, solid (including waste) and gaseous emissions, and sources of


domestic water supply facilities;

diagram illustrating irrigation schemes;

existing and proposed location of human settlements.

Exploitation features:

target crops and justification;

cropping seasons (length and frequency);

 Proposed agricultural techniques;

 Inputs (fertilisers and pesticides);

 Cropping seasons (length and frequency).

 Existing and proposed location of human settlements and public services such as health

centres and accident and emergency units.

 Project schedules and costs.

 Maintenance works, operations and associated costs.

 Expected outputs and profitability for producers.

 Post-harvest activities (storage, processing, commercialisation, market information, etc.).

 Organisation, training and support to producers.

 Complementary initiatives related to improvements in host and/or new communities,

particularly domestic water supplies, sanitary facilities as well as traditional and modern

medical services.

 Consultation approaches and participation mechanisms.

3. Major Issues Related to Crop Production Project

The major issues that can potentially arise when constructing and/or implementing related to

an irrigation crop production project are outlined in the following table.


Crosscutting
Theme

Major Issues Relevant
or not

 Soil conservation.
 Groundwater quality.
 Agrochemical management.
 Pesticide use.

Population  Migration.
 Population characteristics and dynamics.
 Land uses, particularly food cropping land.
 Natural resources uses.
 Agricultural practices and local customs.
 Quality of life.

Health Outcomes  Sexually transmitted diseases.
 Vector-borne diseases.
 Poisoning.
 Malnutrition.
 Injuries.
 Sanitary and hygienic conditions.

Gender  Women’s workload.
 Control over land and land proceeds.
 Income-generating activities.
 Access to land for subsistence cropping.
 Participation in facilities and services aimed at

enhancing productivity.
 Involvement in decision-making processes.

Participation  Participation of affected groups in consultations.

 Organisation level of producers and agricultural
workers.

Population Involuntary resettlement and migration.
Changes in land and natural resources uses.
Disturbance of agricultural practices.
Modification to water access and rights.
Changes in the quality of life.

Poverty Increased economic activities, jobs and revenues.
Improvement in the standard of living.


Crosscutting
Theme

Major Issues Relevant
or not

Variation in income-generating activities.
Changes in access to and control over productive
factors.
Involvement in decision-making processes.

Environment Major changes in the hydrology and limnology of
watershed.
Degradation of water quality.
Overuse and/or misuse of water (over tapping
groundwater and irrigation water losses).
Erosion, water logging and Stalinization of soils.
Loss of vegetation and habitats.

Civil society Changes in the level of organisation of producers and
agricultural workers.


4. Potential Impacts, Enhancement and Mitigation Measures

The potential impacts outlined below are presented by crosscutting theme (one table per theme) to clearly identify the potential interactions

between a crop production project and a specific transversal issue.

4.1 Poverty

Component Potential Beneficial and Adverse Impacts Enhancement and Mitigation Measures

Economy  Increased economic activities.
 Increase in agricultural yields and

production, generating additional revenues.
 Substitution of food imports by local

production.
 Increase in local development and

employment.
 Increase in commercial activities, thus in

revenues for the local population.
 Increased opportunities for agribusiness

operations.
 Constraints for producers to meet profitability

objectives.
 Exclusion of specific groups from project

benefits.
 Change in agricultural prices.

 Give preference to local employment (men and women) and local inputs
(food, basic material) to the extent possible.

 Select crop productions on the basis of commercial comparative
advantages, soil potentialities and the preferences of the local population
(men and women).

 Favour crop diversification and agri-food processing.
 Ensure that commercial channels exist to sell crop productions at

competitive prices.
 Base profitability estimates on conservative revenue assumptions.
 Identify why specific groups are not benefiting from the project and adopt

corrective measures as required.
 Facilitate the access for men and women to production means to ensure

high value crop productions.
 Ensure that the poor and other vulnerable groups still have access to close,

productive land for subsistence crop production and/or pasture.

CROP PRODUCTION GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 6


Poverty cont….

Information,
education
and
communicati
on

 Exclusion of specific groups from crop
production due to a lack of knowledge.

 Development of additional agricultural and
management skills.

 Training not adapted to the specific needs of
the various groups (ex: illiterate men and
women, livestock farmers converted to crop
production).

 Assist groups of individuals (men and women) who may lack the capacity to
apply for participating into the project.

 Develop and implement a literacy program especially aimed at poor people
and women.

 Provide producers, men and women, with the training required to maximize
production and revenues (agricultural techniques, management,
commercialisation).

 Ensure that extension services pay a special attention to producers who do
not have all the agricultural skills required due to a lack of opportunities (ex:
landless people).

Access to
infrastructure
s and
services

 Development of new infrastructures or
improvement to existing ones.

 Improved access to credit for men and
women.

 Increased pressures on existing social
services, including domestic water supply.

 Production losses and/or contamination due
to inappropriate crop storage facilities.

 Low agricultural productivity due to limited
access to agricultural inputs.

 Loss of crop production due to inadequate
commercial services.

 Increase in social services cost and
agricultural input prices.

 During project preparation, consult concerned ministries to verify the
adequacy of current and proposed infrastructures.

 Involve the population (men and women) in the maintenance and
management of new infrastructures to ensure their sustainability.

 Ensure adequate social services for addressing the basic needs of the
host and migrant populations.

 Ensure sufficient and convenient domestic water supplies to satisfy
people’s needs.

 Assist social service administrations in coordinating their efforts to offer
additional services and improve service delivery if required.

 Provide minimal support to producers (men and women) to organize non-
agricultural activities related to crop production (input purchase, technology,
credit, commercialisation, market information).

 Develop safety net measures to protect the poor and other vulnerable
groups against price increases in social services and inputs.

CROP PRODUCTION GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 7


4.2 Environment

Component Potential Beneficial and Adverse Impacts Enhancement and Mitigation Measures

Air  Degradation of air quality due to land
clearing.

 Air pollution associated with aerial spreading
of chemical products.

 Use appropriate means such as vegetation hedges to avoid dust
dispersion.

 Comply with aerial spreading regulation on chemical products and favour
bio-environmental measures.

Water  Change in surface water runoff.
 Degradation of surface water quality

downstream of crop production sites due to
erosion and high concentrations of nutrients
and pesticides.

 Degradation of groundwater quality due to
excessive agricultural inputs.

 During land clearing, avoid crossing permanent waterways; if necessary,
locate the crossing where the banks are stable and the narrowest.

 Plan and install drainage systems for capturing runoff water.
 Maintain a maximum of vegetation along water bodies.
 Implement an adequate management system for fertilisers and pesticides

in order to avoid the degradation of aquatic ecosystems downstream of the
site.

 Favour pest management technologies/approaches to minimize pesticide
use reducing pollutant concentration in drainage water.

 Promote and train farmers (men and women) on agricultural techniques
for efficient use of irrigation water.

 Use biodegradable pesticides as much as possible.
 Control access to water for other purposes than agriculture (safety

measures and rules).
 Adjust the annual pumped water volumes in accordance with the aquifer

annual refill.
 Favour agricultural practices reducing water losses and stagnant water

such as by alternating wet and dry irrigation for paddy rice.
 Ensure proper water management by establishing taxes/tariffs for water

users.

CROP PRODUCTION GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 8


Environment cont…

Soil  Prevention of soil erosion due to the
presence of perennial crops and on-farm
agro-environmental practices.

 Increased soil fertility through natural
resources management practices.

 Soil compaction due to repetitive mechanical
works.

 Soil erosion resulting from site clearing and
cultivation on steep slopes and in
sedimentation problems.

 Loss of organic matter and nutrients by
removal of vegetation and leaching.

 Soils contamination from spilling of
hazardous materials and misuse of pesticides
and fertilisers.

 Minimise the use of heavy machinery and limit their circulation to minimal
areas.

 Minimise and clearly define the land clearing areas.
 Apply organic matter to improve soil structure and fertility.
 Promote the implementation of agroforestry techniques well adapted to

the site (e.g. alley cropping, live fences, parklands., etc).
 Avoid steep slopes and level the land (terrace on slopes) as much as

possible.
 Maintain vegetation edges in order to reduce wind erosion.
 Use biodegradable pesticides and avoid pesticides which accumulate in

sediments and soils.
 Manage safely hazardous materials and pesticides.
 Leach out periodically the land in order to dilute salts.
 Select salt tolerating crops in coastal areas
 Favour perennial crops (coffee, tea, etc.) and open-field covering during

the non-cropping season (such as after sugar cane harvest).
 Minimise the utilisation of fertilisers and pesticides to reduce agricultural

pollution.
Ecosystems  Encroachment in ecologically sensitive

areas.
 Reduction of biodiversity.

 Minimise the length of works in sensitive areas.
 Forbid any encroachment in ecologically sensitive or protected areas.
 Establish a perimeter of protection around sensitive ecosystems such as

wetlands and unique habitats sheltering endangered species.
 Minimise sedimentation in spawning grounds downstream of the site.
 Take into account reproductive habitats, wetlands, spawning grounds and

protected ecological areas.

CROP PRODUCTION GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 9


Environment cont…

Flora  Increase in vegetation due to the presence of
perennial crops.

 Damages to trees (during infrastructure
construction).

 Loss of vegetation due to land clearing.
 Loss of forest products (fuel wood, timber, non

timber forest products).
 Increased vulnerability to insects and pests due

to monoculture.

 Clearly mark the land clearing areas.
 Protect the trees from machinery.
 Plan for recuperating timber and fuel wood obtained from land clearing and

identify mechanisms to distribute the products to the local population.
 Avoid destroying the vegetation along water bodies.
 Ensure the plantation of indigenous species in cleared areas and also in

combination with crop productions.
 Promote the development of community nurseries, preferably operated by

women.
 Promote the implementation of agro forestry parklands systems (tree planting

combined with cropping productions).
 Promote the use of improved fuel wood stoves and other biomass saving devices.
 Minimise the utilisation of fertilisers by using alternative agro-environmental

practices.
 Preserve wild food and medicinal plant supplies.
 Encourage farmers to use irrigation wastewater for growing trees.

Fauna  Perturbation of terrestrial, aquatic and avian
wildlife.

 Fragmentation and degradation of wildlife
habitats.

 Increase in poaching due to migration and non-
resident workers.

 Preserve migration corridors for wild and domestic animals.
 Avoid selecting any site sheltering endangered species.
 Control illegal fishing and hunting, in particular by non-resident workers.

Natural and
cultural
heritage

 Loss of cultural, religious and historical heritage
as well as aesthetic resources.

 Breach in agreements with traditional authorities
concerning cultural, religious, historical and
aesthetic sites and resources.

 Early in the project planning process, carry out an archaeological survey in the
potential areas containing artefacts and preserve discovered artefacts.

 Negotiate with and involve traditional authorities in the preservation and
monitoring of important cultural, religious, historical and aesthetic sites and
resources, as well as in the arrangements for potential compensation for the
communities.

 During land clearing, ensure an archaeological surveillance in the potential areas
containing artefacts and in case of a discovery, advise the concerned authorities.

CROP PRODUCTION GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 10


4.3 Population

Component Potential Beneficial and Adverse Impacts Enhancement and Mitigation Measures

Demographic
trends

 Project allocation criteria (for access to crop
land, credit, etc.) favour large families,
encouraging population growth.

 Increased population and ethnic diversity
after migration.

 Temporary imbalance between men and
women due to male workers and migrants,
which can lead to an increase in sexually
transmitted diseases.

 Establish allocation criteria that are not based on family size.
 Work closely with host communities to facilitate the integration and

acceptation of migrants.
 Plan human settlements in order to prevent promiscuity among new

settlers and between migrants and the local population.
 Whenever possible employ women or married men with nearby families.
 Assist non-resident workers and migrants in order to encourage their

families to rapidly join them.

Migration and
resettlement

 Migrants living in better conditions with an
equivalent or increased income.

 Decreased standard of living for involuntarily
displaced people, if any.

 Inappropriate living conditions for non-
resident workers and their families.

 Constraints in adjusting to new productive
activities.

 Population pressure due to the arrival of
migrants attracted by new cropping
opportunities.

 Unplanned human settlements.

 Plan adequate settlement areas with appropriate housing and services
(water and sanitation) for non-resident workers and their families.

 Provide temporary food supplies to migrants and involuntarily displaced
people, if any.

 Provide complementary training /support to facilitate adjustment during the
transition period.

 If required, ensure appropriate funding for resettlement as well as
productive land compensations in accordance with the priorities of
displaced men and women.

 Establish controls in order to avoid unorganised settlements.

CROP PRODUCTION GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 11


Population cont…
Natural
resources
and land
management

 Increased access to productive land for
beneficiaries of the project.

 Valorisation of unproductive water
resources.

 Change in land and natural resources uses
(e.g. irrigation, agricultural intensification).

 Preference for cash/export cropping over
food cropping.

 Increase in cropping season length in
irrigated crop development project.

 Change in land values and price.
 Perturbation of traditional agriculture (cash

crops versus traditional ones, export crops
versus food production).

 Insufficient arable land to satisfy subsistence
agricultural needs.

 Restriction for livestock grazing.
 Increase of fuelwood and timber use due to

migrants.
 Disruption of land uses leading to social

conflicts.

 Take into account the various land uses while designing the project.
 Coordinate project with other land users (men and women).
 Provide access to productive land to those loosing productive means

(men and women owning or cultivating the land).
 Offer alternative revenue opportunities to men and women deprive from

land to practise traditional agriculture.
 Plan corridors for migrating livestock.
 Develop alternative grazing areas to compensate for those lost.
 Ensure sufficient land is allocated to subsistence cropping to ensure food

security.
 Prevent food insecurity by allocating land and credit to food cropping.
 Integrate crop production project and traditional agricultural land into

development plans.

Quality of life  Improvement in quality of life due to new
economic opportunities and adequate
compensations for losses.

 Improved local food availability and supply.
 Changes in way of life, jeopardising

traditional cultural values.
 Social conflicts due to migrants, non-resident

workers and producers (divorces, ethnic
tension, etc.).

 Establish a formal consultation mechanism with local authorities to
discuss issues disturbing inhabitants and to find solutions satisfying all
stakeholders.

 Train farmers(men and women) in the field of agro-environmental practices.
 Implement an adequate communication plan to inform the local population

on natural resource management.
 Involve local authorities in monitoring implementation activities and

compensation agreements.
 Ensure that part of the crop production is accessible on local markets.
 Ensure appropriate support from social services to prevent conflicts among

groups.

CROP PRODUCTION GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 12


4.4 Health Outcomes

Component Potential Beneficial and Adverse Impacts Enhancement and Mitigation Measures

Communicabl
e diseases

Changes in exposure to:
 Water borne diseases e.g.: diarrhoea and

cholera associated with poor sanitary
conditions.

 Water related diseases e.g.: malaria,
onchocerciasis, filariasis associated with
settlement location and design and with
occupation.

 Water contact diseases e.g.: schistosomiasis
and swimmer's itch associated with domestic
and occupational behaviour.

 Water washed diseases e.g.: scabies and skin
infections associated with poor sanitary and
hygienic conditions.

 Sexually transmitted infections e.g.: HIV/AIDS
associated with migration and economic
change.

 Other vector-borne diseases e.g.:
trypanosomiasis associated with project
location.

 Respiratory infections e.g.: TB associated with
crowding.

 Appropriate domestic water supply to address additional needs.

 Facilitate the implementation of appropriate latrines and other sanitation
facilities.

 Information, education and communication about occupational safety.

 Environmental management for vector control; contact avoidance via
settlement location and design and use of bednets and repellents; focal
insecticide and molluscicide application.

 Strengthen medical services to ensure rapid diagnosis and treatment.

 Safe food storage and handling.

 Implement HIV/AIDS prophylaxis for men and women through appropriate
health promotion as well as wide distribution and use of condoms;
employment opportunities for project-affected women; provision of family
accommodation for non-resident workers.

 Design project settlement housing to avoid crowding, and provide ventilated
kitchens and access to efficient stoves.

 Refer to measures proposed under environment and poverty crosscutting
themes as they address many health determinants of communicable
diseases.

CROP PRODUCTION GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 13


Health Outcomes cont…

Non-
communicabl
e diseases

 Poisoning associated with misuse of
agricultural insecticides and pesticides that
may be acute, chronic, intentional or
unintentional.

 Comply with regulations on pesticides and insecticides imports and
management.

 Safely manage pesticide/insecticide storage (appropriate containers,
labelling, locked facilities).

 Provide appropriate training for all family members on the safe use of
pesticides/ insecticides (using masks and gloves).

 Strengthen medical services to ensure rapid diagnosis and treatment.

 Inform the populations on the risks of disease by using wastewater
containing fertiliser and pesticide.

Malnutrition  Increased and diversified food supply all year
long fulfilling basic local needs.

 Easier access to food due to increased
revenues generated by diversified and/or
irrigated crop productions.

 Improvement in nutritional status due to
increased food supply and access.

 Ensure that part of the food production is directed to local markets to
maintain or increase food supply and access.

 Make provision for subsistence as well as cash crops.

 Plan for complementary food supply during the transition period when
subsistence food supply may decrease.

 Strengthen medical services to ensure rapid diagnosis and treatment.

Injuries  Appearance of or increase in domestic and
communal violence, for example resulting
from land disputes.

 Occupational injuries due to a lack of attention
to safety at work.

 Plan stabilisation and evacuation of injured.

 Prevent communal and domestic violence through awareness and through
resolution of land disputes.

 Develop, communicate and implement safety and preventive measures for
temporary and permanent agricultural workers and producers (men and
women).

 Plan equipment for moving heavy loads such as donkey carts and
ergonomic equipment for men and women.

CROP PRODUCTION GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 14


Health Outcomes cont…

Psychosocial
disorders and
well-being

 Stress and anxiety associated with rapid social
change, loss of traditional authority, loss of
spiritual assets, uncertainty and locus of
control, severance, exclusion and
marginalisation, gender related problems and
domestic disputes leading to suicide, physical
and mental abuse, child marriage, labour and
sale, and communal violence

 Well-being associated with improved income,
stability, work opportunities, settlements,
health, empowerment, education and training.

 Refer to measures proposed under other crosscutting themes as those
address many causes of psychosocial disorders and factors contributing to
well-being.

CROP PRODUCTION GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 15


4.5 Gender

Component Potential Beneficial and Adverse Impacts Enhancement and Mitigation Measures

Division of
labour (paid and
unpaid work)

 Increased child labour.
 Additional time spent by children, women and men on

agricultural activities.
 Increased workload for women as their reproductive

work is not reduced.

 Establish rules among producers to limit child work.
 Provide agricultural technologies to both women and men to reduce time spent on crop

production activities.
 Plan support initiatives to reduce women’s reproductive workload.
 Select crop productions that do not require free agricultural labour to be profitable.

Income-
generating
activities (money
or kind)

 Increased incomes for women when agricultural work
is remunerated or crop revenues shared.

 Development of processing and post-harvest activities.
 Decreased incomes for women when agricultural work

is not remunerated or income-generating activities are
not carried out anymore.

 Women not compensated for the loss of land used for
traditional cropping.

 Limited participation of women in project benefits due
to cultural barriers

 Ensure that men and women cultivating cropland within the project have access to crop
revenues.

 Establish mechanisms to ensure that women get remunerated for their agricultural work,
such as a registration process.

 Ensure that women are directly paid for their work, avoiding intermediaries.
 Promote post-harvest activities generating added value to crop productions.
 Ensure that not only land owners but also men and women occupying / cultivating the land

are compensated for their losses.
 Ensure that project promoters do not reinforce cultural barriers affecting adversely women.

Access to and
control over
productive
factors

 Unequal access to and control over cash crops by
men and women.

 Women affected by the loss of crop production
traditionally controlled by women.

 Crop production training does not respond to women
producers’ demands.

 Limited access of women to services offered to
producers (storage, credit).

 Establish, and change if required, the allocation criteria for accessing and controlling cash
crops to ensure men and women involvement.

 Establish suitable mechanisms to facilitate access to productive means for both men and
women.

 Provide women involved in crop productions with training adapted to their specific needs.
 Ensure that agricultural services offered to men and women are designed in a gender

sensitive way.
 Develop mechanisms to increase credit access and facilities adapted to women.
 Consider targeting women beneficiaries when inequities exist and persist.

Involvement in
societal
organisation

 Involvement of women in decisions related to
agricultural production.

 Women involved in agriculture get organised to obtain
training and/or support adapted to their specific needs.

 Establish agricultural structures such as cooperatives recognising men and women as
producers and members. If cultural barriers do not allow mixed structures, develop
independent structures for women.

 Ensure that women and their organisations get involved in all phases of the project
planning process.

 Facilitate the creation of women groups when women express an interest in being better
organised and represented.

CROP PRODUCTION GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 16


4.6 Participation

Component Potential Beneficial and Adverse Impacts Enhancement and Mitigation Measures

Consultations  Integration of men’s and women’s concerns
into the crop production project design.

 Community involvement and participation in
the project development process.

 Increased support for the project among
affected populations.

 Exclusion of specific groups from
consultations, particularly women.

 Consult affected men and women at all phases of the crop production
project.

 Provide the opportunity to all affected groups (men and women) to
participate in consultations by offering adapted consultation mechanisms.

 Use consultations to determine traditional patterns of right and
responsibilities concerning crop production and to identify ways to increase
the involvement of excluded groups (men and women).

 Inform consulted men and women on how their concerns were taken into
account.

Civil society
strengthening

 Creation of new groups and organisations.
 Capacity strengthening of existing and new

crop producers associations (men and
women).

 Disruption of existing agricultural groups.
 Loss of power of traditional leaders over land

allocation and land use.

 Ensure that men and women have the opportunity to organise themselves
in groups representing their interests.

 Integrate existing agricultural producer associations within the new groups
and organisations or establish collaboration.

 Establish a consultation mechanism with traditional authorities to ensure
that their views are considered during the planning and implementation
phases.

 Facilitate the participation of civil society organisations in the planning and
implementation of crop production initiatives.

CROP PRODUCTION GUIDELINES, FEPA, 2004 17


5. External Factors

There are four major external factors that may jeopardise the outcomes of an

irrigation crop production project:

 Threats from wild animals

Hippopotamus, monkeys, birds and other wild animals can destroy partly or totally

crops and reduce crop revenues. To prevent such threats, it is recommended to plan

and implement crop protection measures such as fencing and guarding. Live fences

implemented along farm borders constitute an effective agro forestry technique to

protect crops against noxious animals.

 Natural disasters

Natural disasters (floods, drought, and plagues) can cause the loss of harvest as well

as injuries and mortality. However, a well-planned crop production project normally

takes into account the risks related to natural disasters. To minimise these risks, the

project shall comply with recognised safety measures. Moreover, the establishment

of an alert mechanism and emergency procedures permits to reduce damages when

a natural disaster occurs. In addition to the early warning mechanism, it is critical to

establish suitable prevention and mitigation measures to help farmers (men and

women).

 Social Instability

The emergence of community violence, vandalism, civil war, border raids and

boundary disputes are phenomena that generate social instability and can lead to

migration, disruption of the food chain, injuries, epidemics and mortality. Good

governance and poverty alleviation policies are means to prevent social instability.


6. Hazard Management

The main hazards associated with an irrigation project a crop production project are

the following:

 Hazardous materials spills, resulting in water and soil contamination, aquatic

wildlife poisoning, health and water supply problems.

 Pesticide misuse, resulting in acute and chronic poisoning of people and

wildlife, as well as bioaccumulation.

In order to prevent or minimise these hazards, appropriate risk management

measures shall be designed and implemented.

7. Environmental and Social Monitoring

The following table presents potential indicators that could be used to monitor the

implementation of an irrigation crop production project. The appropriate indicators for

a specific project shall be selected according to the project context, major anticipated

impacts and the cost of data collection and processing.

Component Indicators
Poverty
Economy  Annual revenues and profits generated by crop production

compared to projected revenues and profits.
 Number of jobs created (directly and indirectly).
 Number or proportion of producers failing to reimburse their debts.
 New economic activities created in agri-food sector (processing,

services, inputs).
 Average salaries for export/industrial cropping workers (men and

women) in comparison to average national salaries of agricultural


Component Indicators
Environment
Soils  Volume of sedimentation downstream of project area.

 Concentration of organic compounds in sediments.
 Main physical and chemical soil fertility parameters (ex. : salinity,

pH, organic matter content, capacity of exchange, water retention
capacity).

 Area under cropping productions.
Water  Groundwater static level and refilling capacity.

 Parameters of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality for
evaluating the physico-chemical characteristics of underground and
surface water quality (upstream, on the site and downstream).

 Level of agricultural pollutants in wastewater.
Flora  Biomass per inhabitant.

 Evolution of forest area.
Fauna  Damages to crop production (area and/or quantity).

Population
Demographic trends  Population growth and ethnic composition.

Migration and resettlement  Integration level of migrants in host communities (survey).

 Number of informal settlements built by migrants.

Natural resources and land
management

 Subsistence production in calories per inhabitant.
 Number of conflicts between livestock farmers and crop producers.

Quality of life  Level of satisfaction of local people (survey).

Health Outcomes
Communicable diseases  Prevalence rates of water contact and water washed diseases as well

as sexually transmitted infections.

 Number of vector breeding sites and vector density.
 Outpatient attendance records.
 Quantities of drug supplied and used from health services and local

shops.
 Availability of condoms, impregnated bednets and mosquito

repellents.
Non-communicable diseases  Prevalence rates of pesticide poisoning.

Inventory of exposure sites including pesticide storage.


Component Indicators
production project.

Income-generating activities  Proportion of crop production revenues received and managed by
men and women in families participating in the project.

Access to and control over
productive factors

 Proportion of men and women owners and/or tenants within the
crop production project.

 Level of satisfaction of women toward project investment decisions
and management methods (survey).

 Number of women and men using facilities (storage, post-harvest,
credit, commercialisation, etc.).

Involvement in societal
organisation

 Number of women and men involved in agricultural cooperatives or
farmers organisations.

Participation
Civil society strengthening  Evolution in the number of agricultural organisations.

 Conflicts among new and existing organisations involved in
agriculture.

 Level of participation of farmers organisations in the decision-
making processes.


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