Policy responses to reduce single-use plastic marine pollution in the Caribbean

Policy responses to reduce single-use plastic marine pollution in the Caribbean


Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (xxxx) xxx

Please cite this article as: C. Andrea Clayton, Marine Pollution Bulletin, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111833

0025-326X/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Policy responses to reduce single-use plastic marine pollution in
the Caribbean

C. Andrea Clayton a,*, Tony R. Walker b, Joana Carlos Bezerra c, Issahaku Adam d

a Caribbean Maritime University, Kingston, Jamaica
b School for Resource and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
c Community Engagement Division, Rhodes University, South Africa
d Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana

A R T I C L E I N F O

Keywords:
Marine plastic pollution
Single-use plastics (SUPs)
Plastic bags
Plastic bag policies
Caribbean

A B S T R A C T

Caribbean economies depend heavily on a healthy marine ecosystem, but the region includes ten of the top
global marine polluters per capita. Regional marine pollution is driven by illegal plastic waste dumping due to
poor waste management systems with limited recycling, and weak enforcement. Governments recognize the
impacts of marine debris on their social and economic well-being and have responded with policies to curb
plastic pollution. Most focus on bans of single-use plastic and polystyrene, which comprises ~80% of Caribbean
marine litter. However, there is little comparative analysis of policy responses to determine their efficacy. This
paper reviews current policies in 13 English-speaking Caribbean countries, exploring tools used and process of
implementation. Eleven have introduced legislative policies, with seven including fines and penalties for non-
compliance. All successful policies involve multiple tools, including primary stakeholder engagement, suffi-
cient lead time between policy announcement and implementation, and extensive public education campaigns.

1. Introduction

Since the 1950s, the growth in plastic production and use has out-
paced most other materials. Plastic polymers are versatile, lightweight,
hygienic, durable and (in some forms) degradation-resistant and can be
molded and utilized in a very wide range of applications (UNEP, 2018a).
Global production was 359 million metric tons in 2015 (Geyer et al.,
2017). Plastic consumption varies significantly between regions, from
100 kg/person per year in North America (mostly packaging) to 20 kg/
person per year in Asia (Nara, 2018). There are numerous concerns
associated with the use of plastics, largely with regard to their impact on
the environment and human health when discarded (Jambeck et al.,
2015; Karbalaei et al., 2018; Borrelle et al., 2020). Only a small fraction
is currently recovered and recycled, resulting in plastic leakage and
environmental pollution (Barboza et al., 2018). Much ends up in land-
fills or illegal dump sites. In 2010, an estimated 8 million metric tons of
mismanaged plastics leaked into the ocean (Jambeck et al., 2015), and
emissions may reach up to 53 million metric tons per year by 2030
(Borrelle et al., 2020). Much of this mismanaged plastic is caused by
single-use plastics (SUPs). SUPs are used for many applications,
including food packaging such as grocery bags, food containers, bottles,

straws, cups, cutlery and other items intended to be used only once
before they are discarded (Schnurr et al., 2018). Recently, the COVID-19
pandemic has created another source of SUP plastic pollution from
mismanaged personal protective equipment (PPE) such as masks and
gloves (Prata et al., 2020; Patrício Silva et al., 2020).

Accumulation of SUP waste in the environment has become a major
problem, both because of the tonnage and the ability to resist degra-
dation; most forms of plastic are not biodegradable, and so persist in the
environment (UNEP, 2018a, 2018b). In most Caribbean nations plastic
waste is disposed of in landfills, dumped illegally or ends up in the ocean
where they continue to fragment into microplastics (Caribbean Policy
Research Institute, 2017; UNEP, 2018b, 2018c; Ambrose et al., 2019;
Diez et al., 2019). Microplastics, with a diameter <5 mm cause concern,
because they can enter the human food chain via seafood (Barboza et al.,
2018; Karbalaei et al., 2018, 2020; Morrall et al., 2018). Primary
microplastics are manufactured (e.g., microbeads), while secondary
microplastics are produced via fragmentation and weathering of mac-
roplastics. It is almost impossible to recover microplastics, so they
persist in the environment for centuries (GESAMP, 2016). Much of the
current commercial fish stock including cod and mackerel now contain
microplastics (FAO, 2016; Karbalaei et al., 2019), including those in the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: aclayton@faculty.cmu.edu.jm (C.A. Clayton), trwalker@dal.ca (T.R. Walker), issahaku.adam@ucc.edu.gh (I. Adam).

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine Pollution Bulletin

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111833
Received 4 August 2020; Received in revised form 6 November 2020; Accepted 7 November 2020

mailto:aclayton@faculty.cmu.edu.jm
mailto:trwalker@dal.ca
mailto:issahaku.adam@ucc.edu.gh
www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/0025326X
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Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (xxxx) xxx

2

coastal and marine environments of the Caribbean (Morrall et al., 2018).
The levels of microplastic consumption in the Caribbean are therefore
likely to be high, given that fish forms an important part of the diet in
most Caribbean nations (Waite et al., 2011; Caribbean Regional Fish-
eries Mechanism, 2016).

There are other human and ecological impacts that result from
plastic mismanagement. For example, when burned, plastics release
toxic chemicals into the air which can cause cancers, respiratory and
other health problems if inhaled (Women in Europe for a Common
Future, 2005; Zaman, 2010). Some chemicals (including BPA and
phthalates) can cross the placenta in pregnancy, resulting in growth
retardation and neurological harm to babies (Koushal et al., 2014).
Finally, plastic waste can create an additional hazard simply because it is
impervious to water. Some of the poorest communities in the Caribbean
lack proper sanitation or waste collection systems, so plastic garbage
accumulates and leaks into the environment. It traps rainwater in
stagnant puddles, which are ideal breeding sites for disease-carrying
insects like the Aedes aegypti mosquito, which is prevalent in the re-
gion. This results in disease spread, like Zika, Dengue and Malaria
(Plastic Soup Foundation, 2016; Ewing-Chow, 2019).

1.1. The Caribbean

The Caribbean region is a group of states and territories in or
bordering the Caribbean Sea, with a total population of 43 million
(Otieno, 2018). The region contains approximately 7000 islands, islets,
reefs and cays (Boudreau et al., 2012), along with Belize, Guyana and
Suriname, which are mainland states with a Caribbean coastline. Only
239,681 km (8.7%) of the regions total area of 2,753,000 km2 is dry
land, which makes the marine territory much larger than the land
terrain. For example, the maritime territory in Jamaica is approximately
235,000 km2 which is 21 times larger than the island itself (Creary,
2007). The Caribbean Sea is a primary transhipment route with direct
access to the Panama Canal, a major gateway for transporting cargo. It is
also a primary source for fish and fisheries products, providing socio-
economic opportunities through direct and indirect employment, pri-
marily in Guyana (31%), the Bahamas (11%) and Trinidad and Tobago
(7%). Exports of fish and fishery products add significantly to the
regional GDP, contributing US$111.2 million to Guyana’s economy in

2017 (Lusher et al., 2017; FAO, 2020), US$87.7 million to the Bahamas
in 2017 (FAO, 2020), and US$27 million in 2016 to that of Trinidad and
Tobago (FAO, 2020). Additionally, the Caribbean region is a major
tourism destination. The climate and beaches help make the region one
of the top tourist destinations in the world (Diez et al., 2019), and the
destination for roughly half of the global cruise tourism. In 2018, the
region received about 25.68 million tourists. The industry generated US
$32 billion dollars for the region, making it a major source of income,
and by far the largest source of employment (United Nations World
Tourism Organisation, 2020).

The region is organized into 30 different democratic political entities
(CARICOM, 2020) which include 12 independent countries and 18
dependent territories. Each country is shaped, to some extent, by the
colonial past, which established English, Spanish, Dutch and French as
the four primary languages of the region and determined the basic po-
litical system of representative democracy. Cuba represents the only
communist country of the region. The shared heritage and languages
also lent themselves to the formation of the Caribbean Community and
Common Market (CARICOM). CARICOM has fifteen full members, five
associate members, all of which are UK overseas territories; and eight
countries with observer status (Fig. 1). This review is focused on the
English-speaking core members of CARICOM, which excludes Haiti and
Suriname.

2. Methodology

The impact of plastic pollution on the environment has been studied
widely and several global policy documents to reduce plastic marine
pollution were reviewed for this study (e.g., Xanthos and Walker, 2017;
UNEP, 2017, 2018a,d; Schnurr et al., 2018; Karasik et al., 2020).
However, relatively little empirical research has been done within the
Caribbean region. There has been a sharp rise in awareness and concern
in the Caribbean about impacts of plastic pollution, but this appears to
be largely a response to increased global concern about social, economic
and environmental impact of SUP, rather than being based on any local
assessments. This review was motivated by lack of regional policy
studies aimed at assessing the extent and magnitude of the problem,
identifying options to reduce SUP use and alleviate its impact. This
paper examines current developments in SUP-related policies and/or

Fig. 1. Map of countries with full membership in CARICOM.

C.A. Clayton et al.


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3

legislation in the Caribbean, including bans or levies, as well as the
processes used to introduce the respective mechanisms. Most of these
have not previously been documented or discussed in the academic
literature.

This review started with a systematic approach based on that used by
Adam et al. (2020). This involved assessing the level of knowledge in the
region of the impact of SUP, compared to other regions and international
fora, examining the formal approaches (i.e., those codified in law and/or
regulation) taken to address the problem of SUP and the impact on the
marine environment, and making recommendations for remediation and
implementation measures consistent with the regions commitment to
the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs).

The review involved examining secondary data from news publica-
tions, peer-reviewed publications and conference proceedings, and
relevant published and website reports from governments and interna-
tional organizations, industry sectors, companies and NGOs. This
required searches for key words and phrases across open sources, as well
as searches in academic databases such as Proquest and Science Direct.
Words and phrases included ‘single-use plastic ban in the Caribbean’,
‘impact of single-use plastic on the economies of the Caribbean’, ‘marine
pollution in the Caribbean’, ‘marine pollution and the economies of the
Caribbean’ and ‘Caribbean response to marine pollution’. Key word
searches were also applied for each country. For example, ‘single-use
plastic ban in Trinidad and Tobago’. The small size of each country
meant that all policies identified were at the national level. This obvi-
ated the need to examine the geographical boundaries of each policy.
The review focused on the reasons behind the initiatives, the measures
accompanying each policy, and identified the key participants in the
initiatives.

Solid waste management is already a major issue in the Caribbean. In
Latin America and the Caribbean an estimated 145,000 tons of waste per
day are disposed in open dumpsites, including 17,000 tons of plastic.
(UNEP, 2018c). Few Caribbean nations have a comprehensive national
solid waste management framework resulting in mismanagement of SUP
waste (UNEP, 2018c). As a result, only 54% of the regions solid waste is
disposed of in sanitary landfills, and much of the remainder ends up in
storm drains and so into the ocean (Riquelme et al., 2016; Caribbean
Policy Research Institute, 2017; UNEP, 2019a). This includes some
300,000 tons of plastic, which are not collected or processed, and
eventually end up being disposed of in illegal dumps or waterways,
accounting for approximately 35% of the waste in the regional marine
environment (Diez et al., 2019). This is unsustainable, given the regions
heavy dependence on beach-based tourism for revenue and employ-
ment, and for fish consumption.

The review therefore focused on current discussions, policies and
practical activities aimed at reducing SUP usage. Most of these are still in
a very early stage, so there was little basis for a comparison or analysis of
the actual impact of the outlined policies, and the review did not
examine the level of awareness among the general population. There are
therefore several opportunities for further research, including an
assessment of policy impact, tracking the raising of awareness among
the population, and monitoring any changes in behaviour. To ensure
validity and reliability, it was necessary to triangulate the data. This
required 1) establishing consistency of the data, using at least three
documents to support policy development process, announcements,
implementation, and penalties, and 2) accessing original policy docu-
ments or utilizing information from a combination of at least three
government and/or internationally accredited organizations, such as the
United Nations and the World Bank.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Plastic in the Caribbean

Most Caribbean countries have open economies, but few have strong
manufacturing or agricultural sectors, so most food and manufactured

goods are imported, along with substantial amounts of plastic in the
form of packaging (Plastic Packing Facts, 2013). Trinidad, for example,
annually imports, at least 49,000 tons of plastic for packaging used to
protect imported food and other products (Hull and Williams, 2020).
Disposable plastic has become ubiquitous in the region (UNEP, 2018c,
2019a, 2019b; Diez et al., 2019). Until recently, grocery stores gave free
plastic bags to all their customers, and take-out meals routinely came
with polystyrene containers, plastic bottles, plastic straws and cutlery,
all placed in another plastic bag for convenient carrying (Caribbean
Policy Research Institute, 2017; UNEP, 2018a, 2018b). All 13 countries
have some plastic bottle recycling initiative, which collects a small
percentage of the bottles, but apart from that, disposable items are not
recovered and go on to cause waste management, environmental and
health problems. Plastic bags, bottles, juice boxes and wrapping mate-
rials can very effectively block sewers and storm drains, causing flooding
(Caribbean Policy Research Institute, 2017; UNEP, 2018a, 2018b; Cross,
2018; UNEP, 2019a; Grant, 2019). Plastic waste is transported into the
ocean; and can threaten marine life and coral reefs, with serious im-
plications for fisheries and food security, as well as tourism (Koushal
et al., 2014; Thevenon et al., 2014; UNEP, 2018a, 2018b). The combi-
nation of factors – lack of capacity, limited fiscal space, wasteful con-
sumption practices, absence of effective policy and weak enforcement –
is why the Caribbean is home to ten of the top thirty global polluters per
capita (Diez et al., 2019; Ewing-Chow, 2019). Major polluters include
Trinidad and Tobago (which produces the largest amount of waste per
day per person, in part because it has a manufacturing sector and an oil
and gas industry), Antigua and Barbuda, St. Kitts and Nevis, Guyana,
Barbados, St. Lucia, Bahamas, Grenada, Anguilla, and Aruba (Ewing-
Chow, 2019).

Marine pollution is therefore a particular problem for the Caribbean
(Ambrose et al., 2019; Brown, 2020). These states are major contributors
to marine pollution but are also more dependent on the environmental
quality of the Caribbean Sea, which is the base for the regions ‘sand, sun,
and sea’ tourism package. Tourism directly contributes 15.5% of the
regions gross domestic product and employs 14% of the labour force
(World Travel and Tourism Council, 2019). The extent of the reliance on
the marine environment is evidenced by the impact that the increase in
the amount of sargassum algae being deposited on Caribbean beaches, is
having on the tourism industry (The Caribbean Council, 2020; Brown,
2020). Sargassum is a natural phenomenon, but since 2011, the piling
up of hundreds of tons of rotting, sulphurous weed on the shores has
resulted in millions of US dollars being spent to remove the debris (Yong,
2019; Ellsmoor, 2019; The Caribbean Council, 2020). Surprisingly, this
failed to raise awareness of the extent of dependency on the quality of
the marine environment, and that marine debris can affect not only the
marine and coastal environment, and marine biodiversity, but can also
directly impact local economies (UNEP, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c).

The health of marine systems in the Caribbean is therefore vital to
current and future development (Patil et al., 2016). Clean-up activities
provide a snapshot of the level of solid waste pollution stranded on
beaches. In 2018, nineteen Caribbean countries participated in the
annual Ocean Conservancy International Coastal Cleanup. Debris
collected in a single day of beach clean-up around the world, was
measured and categorized (by percent composition), volume and
weight. Eight participating countries in this review, accounted for 33%
of the debris collected, with plastic bottles comprising 26% of all debris
items collected in the region (Fig. 2). Collectively, nations of the
Caribbean collected 4.2 million foam fragments, plastic and micro-
plastics (Ocean Conservancy, 2017; Diez et al., 2019).

The Caribbean islands generate more waste per capita than average
global waste generation waste. As island states with a high dependence
on tourism, importation of products and poor waste management ex-
acerbates levels of potential leakage. For example, the UNEP (2018c)
report Waste Management Outlook for Latin America and the Caribbean
estimate that the number of floating microplastic and macroplastics in
the Wider Caribbean Region (WCR) is estimated to be about 82,000 and

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5000 pieces/km2, respectively making this region among those with the
highest plastic concentrations in the world (UNEP, 2018c). Acosta-Coley
et al. (2019a, 2019b) also found that microplastic densities along the
Caribbean Coastline of Colombia were a hot spot for microplastic
pollution.

In another study, Diez et al. (2019) found that Caribbean litter
comprises 2014 items/km2, which is three-and a half times the global
average (573 items/km2), but this debris does not all originate from the
region. The Caribbean is part of the circulation in the great Ocean
Conveyor current, which moves deep waters from the Atlantic to the
Pacific and receives surface waters in exchange (Woods Hole Oceano-
graphic Institution, 2020). This means that some debris items collected
on Caribbean coasts originate from transboundary sources. For example,
Ambrose et al. (2019) reported that many stranded plastic debris in
South Eleuthera, The Bahamas were associated with Atlantic Ocean
currents transporting leakage from the North Atlantic sub-tropical gyre.
This exposes the region to quantities of marine debris that are higher
than domestic patterns of consumption.

In response, the region has committed to addressing solid waste,
primarily the anthropogenic causes, with plastic and SUPs being given
priority. This has resulted in the adoption of a Regional Solid Waste
Action Plan by CARICOM countries (UNEP, 2018c; Diez et al., 2019).
This leaves each country to develop its own approach and framework for
managing solid waste originated on land (Riquelme et al., 2016). In
1983, the Cartagena Convention was adopted, which is a regional legal
agreement for the protection of the Caribbean Sea. Among other things
the Convention is designed to reduce land-based sources of marine
pollution, including SUPs (UNEP, 2020). Additionally, a Caribbean
Regional Node for Marine Litter has been established which is co-hosted
by the Cartagena Convention Secretariat and the Gulf and Caribbean
Fisheries Institute. This was done within the framework of the Global
Partnership on Marine Litter for which the UNEP Global Programme of
Action is the Secretariat (UNEP, 2020).

Nevertheless, even with the Cartagena Convention and the adoption
of the regional action plan for marine litter, as well as the commitment
made by the UN Environment Caribbean Sub-Regional Office for the
Caribbean to be free of SUPs and plastic pollution (UNEP, 2018c,
2019b), progress remains slow in the regional response addressing the
extension of the problem in the marine environment.

In Jamaica, 75% of solid waste is collected, while uncollected waste
is either buried, burnt or littered, often ending up in drains, rivers,
gullies, beaches and ultimately the ocean (Caribbean Policy Research
Institute, 2017). Waste that does reach authorized dumpsites is
hampered by lack of any comprehensive waste separation or recycling

programs, which allows SUPs to be comingled with all other forms of
domestic waste, which contributes to further environmental and social
problems. In response, several independent initiatives have been
recently introduced to address the use of plastic, with the objective of
reducing its impact on the marine environment. Initiatives have been led
by the public and private sector, civil society and communities (UNEP,
2019a). However, many of these initiatives are sporadic in nature and
are not supported by any specific regulation or national policy. Many
activities are uncoordinated or sustained, limiting their overall effec-
tiveness. Given the scale of the problem, a coherent and cohesive policy
framework is required for a sustained and effective approach to reduce
SUP marine pollution.

3.2. Regional strategies to reduce plastic use and marine pollution

There is no universal response to regional SUP pollution (Prata et al.,
2019). Various governments and companies have undertaken their own
policies or voluntary bans to address their respective problems or areas
of interest (Ambrose et al., 2019). The focus for regional governments
has been on individual: policies, regulations, and legislation to reduce
SUP debris (e.g., imposing bans on plastic bag production and bans on
the use of plastic bags); market-based instruments (e.g., levies on SUPs)
for minimizing waste; and penalties for non-compliance. Legislative
policies have been applied in ten countries that now have national
strategies. Guyana was never able to enforce compliance of its 2016 ban
and is attempting to reintroduce new measures. These legislative bans
set limits for use or access to SUP items, details of which are summarized
in Table 1. All jurisdictions began with partial bans on the importation,
sale and/or distribution of SUP items and progressed to complete bans,
which included the production and importation of the products. As a
general rule, implementation of bans is best done with adequate lead
time and accompanied by the introduction of alternatives to allow
people to change their behaviour (UNEP, 2018a; Adam et al., 2020;
Karasik et al., 2020). However, 11 of the thirteen countries with bans
announced the bans with little lead time (one to six months), which did
not give the industry much time to respond with adequate alternatives.
Ideally, the entire supply chain should have been addressed to develop
new alternatives to SUP and introduce them to the market.

Currently, 11 countries have instituted national SUP bans: plastic
bags, Styrofoam, or both (Fig. 3). St. Kitts and Nevis are at the local
government level on the implementation of a national ban and is
developing national plans and legislation, while Monserrat is still in the
discussion phase (Government of Monserrat, 2018). These initiatives are
intended to reduce volumes of mismanaged waste. It is important to

Plas�c bo�les
and caps

Straw s�rrers Plas�c bags Food containers Plas�c lids
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5

10

15

20

25

30

Pe
rc
en

ta
ge

Fig. 2. Single-use waste composition of marine debris collected from 8 of the 13 countries under review in 2017.
(Data from the Ocean Conservancy (2017).)

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Table 1
CARICOM countries national responses to single-use plastics.

Country and
legislation

Date first ban
introduced

Name of ban/legislation Scope Penalties for breach Status and impact

Fines Imprisonment

Antigua and
Barbuda

January 1,
2016

The External Trade
(Shopping Plastic Bags
Prohibition) Order, 2017
Litter Control and Prevention
Act, 2019

January 1, 2016 – Antigua and Barbuda prohibited the
importation, manufacturing and trading of plastic
shopping bags. In July of the same year, the distribution
of such bags at points of sale was banned. Success of the
first year allowed for further phases.
July 1st to December 31st, 2017 - Ban on importation
and use of food service containers to include: clamshell
and hinge containers, hot dog containers, bowls, plates,
and hot and cold beverage cups. Depletion of stock on
hand to be followed by monitoring and confiscation.
January 1st to June 30th, 2018 - Ban on importation
and use of plastic utensils (spoons, forks and knives),
straws, fruit trays, meat trays, vegetable trays and egg
cartons. Depletion of stock on hand to be followed by
monitoring and confiscation.
July 1st, 2018 to January 1st, 2019 - Ban on
importation and use of “naked” Styrofoam coolers.
Depletion of stock on hand to be followed by
monitoring and confiscation.
The ban extends to all businesses within the food
service industry to include large and small
supermarkets, grocery stores and the catering sector in
Antigua and Barbuda. Items include: SUP shopping bags
for retail purposes, Expanded polystyrene (Styrofoam)
including bowls, plates, hot and cold beverage cups lids
and caps, straws, forks, knives, spoons, fruit/vegetable/
meat trays and egg cartons for retail purposes.

US$1110. 6 months. In effect. In the first year, the ban contributed to a
15.1% decrease in the amount of plastic discarded
in landfills in Antigua and Barbuda. The ban on the
commercial use of plastic bags has seen major
businesses conforming, but compliance among
smaller operators remains problematic. To improve
this situation, reusable plastic bags were
distributed for free in all the smaller businesses.
Fines are being discussed for the illegal trade in
SUP.

Bahamas January 1,
2020

Environmental Protection
(Control of Plastic Pollution)
Bill, 2019

National ban on plastic bags and Styrofoam including:
SUP food ware, balloons and non-biodegradable single
use plastic bags.

1a) First offence – US$2000
1b) Continuing offence – Additional
US$500 for each day or part thereof
during which the offence continue
2a) Second Offence – Fine not
exceeding US$3000
2b) Continuing offence – Additional
B$700 for each day or part thereof
during which the offence continue
3a) Corporate body – Fine not
exceeding US$5000.

Not in effect. In effect. Too early to assess impact.

Barbados April 1, 2019 Control of Disposable Plastics
Act, 2019–11

April 1, 2019 – National ban on the import single use
plastic containers and single use plastic cutlery.
July 1, 2019 – National ban on distribution, sale or use
of single use plastic containers plastic cutlery.
April 1, 2020 – National ban on import or manufacture
any petro-based plastic bag.

US$25,000. Continuing offence - US
$500 for each day or part thereof,
during which the offence continues
after which a conviction is first
obtained.

One year. Too early to assess impact.

Belize January 15,
2020

Environmental Protection
(Pollution from Plastics)
Regulation 2020

March 2018 – Belize approved a proposal to reduce
plastic and Styrofoam pollution by phasing out of
single-use shopping bags and food utensils.
Driven by the financial burden of plastic waste clean-
up, exposure of shoreline to the enormous floating
island of plastic in the Caribbean Sea, and the harm
discarded plastic has on marine life.
January 14, 2020 – Law officially signed.

Not in effect. In effect. Too early to assess impact.

Dominica January 1,
2019

Budget Address 2018–2019:
From Survival, to

December 2018–0% duty on the importation
authenticated biodegradable products (Lids, Cups,

Not in effect. Too early to assess impact.

(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued )

Country and
legislation

Date first ban
introduced

Name of ban/legislation Scope Penalties for breach Status and impact

Fines Imprisonment

Sustainability and Success: A
Resilient Dominica

Single Use Containers, Cutlery, and Drinking Straws) as
well as no duty on the importation of reusable shopping
bags.
January 1, 2019 - Ban on the importation of the non-
biodegradable single use plastics from at all ports of
entry.

Grenada February 1,
2019

Non-Biodegradable Waste
Control (Plastic Bags) Order

February 1, 2019 - National ban on importation and
local manufacture of single-use plastic shopping bags
with handles.
December 1, 2019 - Ban on the sale or offer for sale of
single-use plastic shopping bags with handles.
February 1, 2020: No person shall offer for sale any food
item in or with a single-use plastic shopping bag with
handle. Additionally, there shall be no importation,
manufacture, sale or offer for sale of SUP cutlery, plates,
straws and cups.

Not in effect. In effect. Too early to assess impact.

Guyana January 1,
2016

Litter Regulations National ban on the use, importation or manufacturing
possessing and selling food in the Styrofoam.

No less than $50,000 (US$240).
Businesses - issued written warning
prohibiting the use of expanded
polystyrene; or a fine of no less than
$100,000 (US$480).

None included
in legislation.

Initial legislation failed.
New initiative being developed.

Jamaica January 1,
2019

The Trade Act
The Trade (Plastic Packaging
Materials Prohibition)
Order, 2018
The Natural Resources
Conservation Authority
(Plastic Packaging Materials
Prohibition) Order, 2018

As of January 1, 2019 the Government will impose a
ban on single use plastic bags, cutlery, straws and
polystyrene. The ban covers the importation,
manufacture and distribution of the materials.
The plastic bags to be banned are those that are
commonly referred to a ‘scandal bags’ or other bags
with dimensions of 24 in. by 24 in. or less.

Not exceeding J$2m (US$14,040). Not exceeding
two years.

2015 estimates state that each person used 500
‘scandal’ bags per year, an estimated 75% increase
from 2011.

In effect. Too early to assess impact.

Monserrat December 31, 2018
Go Green Initiative

The Government of Montserrat, through the Cabinet
banned the use of plastic products, such as plastic cups,
plates and Styrofoam dishes in all Government
Ministries and Departments.

Not in effect. No ban in effect.

St. Kitts and
Nevis

No legislation in place. In 2018 the Plastic Free
July, initiative began to educate citizens on the
personal, natural and economic effects of
plastic pollution.

December 2019: During the Budget 2020 debate,
Minister Eugene Hamilton stressed the importance of
establishing a national position on plastic waste. The
subject continues to be discussed at a national level.

Not in effect. No ban in effect.

St. Lucia August 1,
2019

The Styrofoam and Plastics
(Prohibition) Act No. 22 of
2019

In March 2018, the Cabinet of Ministers were requested
to consider and endorse the following
recommendations:
A phase-out of Polystyrene (Styrofoam) food service
containers.
An imposition of a 0% Import Duty on all biodegradable
and compostable food service containers.
A total ban on plastic shopping bags, in order to
encourage the use of reusable shopping bags, along
with total ban on single use plastics and personal care
products containing microplastics thereby reducing the
impact of plastics on the environment, both marine and
terrestrial.
In 2019 the ban was introduced which made illegal the
importation, manufacture, sale, use and/or distribution
of Styrofoam and plastic food service containers.

Seizure – Individual required to pay
for storage, the export of the illegal
items, or, the disposal of the illegal
item.
Importation, manufacture, use, and
distribution - not exceeding $15,000
(US$5550).

Not in effect. In effect. Too early to assess impact.

May 1, 2017 May 1st, 2017 – National ban on Styrofoam containers.
March 1st, 2020 – National ban on the importation of

Not in effect. In effect. Too early to assess impact.

(continued on next page)

C
.A

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recognize that while some countries, such as Trinidad and Tobago, St.
Vincent and the Grenadines and Jamaica, have the capacity to produce
some SUP,s all of them import a significant amount of the plastic they
use (UNEP, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c), which is why the national bans make
the importation of most SUPs illegal.

3.3. First adopter advantage - a multi-pronged approach – educate,
engage and alternatives - the case of Antigua and Barbuda

In 2016, Antigua and Barbuda became the first Caribbean country to
successfully implement a ban on the importation and use of SUP bags
commonly used for grocery and retail shopping. This was first intro-
duced in major supermarkets (and later extended to smaller retailers) as
SUP bags accounted for 90% of plastic debris in the environment. The
process began in July 2015 and included six months of lead time prior to
the introduction of the ban in 2016 (Diez et al., 2019). It included
consultation and involvement of various key stakeholders at all levels
which helped to reduce the burden on consumers and ensured that al-
ternatives to SUPs were available for all products (UNEP, 2018a,
2018b). It also included regular progress updates by the government and
a public education campaign, with messages on reusable bags to
encourage widespread acceptance of the ban. The awareness-raising
campaign was used to educate the population of the reasons behind
the switch, and to give them a sense of commitment, with the slogan “I’m
making a difference one bag at a time”. Additionally, after the ban was
introduced, the public was given several incentives to switch to reusable
and biodegradable alternatives. Shoppers were provided with tax-
exempt reusable bags, and supermarkets provided single-use recycled
paper bags. Biodegradable alternatives were also made locally from
sugar cane, bamboo, paper, and potato starch (Diez et al., 2019).

However, despite the success there were still challenges two years
after the introduction of the ban (The Daily Observer, 2018), and this led
to public discussions and introduction of fines and penalties for
breaching the ban. This combination led to a 15.1% decline in the
amount of plastic waste going to landfills in the first year after the ban
was introduced (Seucharan, 2019). It is likely that this made way for the
subsequent expansion of the ban to include Styrofoam and polystyrene
receptacles including coolers, food service containers, plastic utensils,
straws, fruit trays, meat trays, vegetable trays and egg cartons (Gov-
ernment of Antigua and Barbuda, 2017; UNEP, 2018a, 2018b; Diez
et al., 2019).

3.4. A consultative phased approach

Some countries such as Dominica, Grenada, St. Lucia and St. Vincent
and the Grenadines, have recently implemented their bans, based on a
systematic engagement framework. For example, St. Lucia took initial
steps in March 2018 towards phasing out polystyrene food service
containers (Karasik et al., 2020). The process included imposition of a
0% import duty on all biodegradable and compostable food service
containers, a total ban on plastic shopping bags, to encourage the use of
reusable shopping bags, along with total ban on single use plastics and
personal care products containing microplastics, thereby reducing the
impact of plastics on the environment, both marine and terrestrial. This
was done simultaneously with: i) the establishment of a collaborative
framework between the Saint Lucia Solid Waste Management Authority,
and the relevant agencies to implement waste diversion and minimiza-
tion strategies that encourage recycling, reuse and composting; and ii)
public education campaigns aimed at promoting environmentally
friendly products such as biodegradable products and the economic/
environmental impacts of SUPs, in contrast to their alternatives; and to
encourage positive behaviours such as community recycling and com-
posting (Government of St. Lucia, 2019).

The St. Lucian government aims to increase the lifespan of the
landfills, provide employment/economic opportunities and improve
environmental stewardship. This collaborative approach was also used Ta

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C.A. Clayton et al.


Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (xxxx) xxx

8

in the Bahamas which introduced a phased implementation ban on SUPs
and polystyrene which went into effect on January 1, 2020, with a
transition period of six months (Government of the Bahamas, 2019). As
with Jamaica, fines were to be introduced in June 2020. Their collab-
orative process involved key stakeholders, including the Ministry of
Environment and Housing, Ministry of Tourism, Ministry of Health,
Ministry of Finance, Customs Department, University of The Bahamas,
the Bahamas Chamber of Commerce and Employers Federation, The
Bahamas Plastic Movement, The Nature Conservancy, Atlantis Paradise
Island and Baha Mar Ltd. Their goal was to develop an inclusive national
campaign to phase out SUPs by the end of 2020 (Government of the
Bahamas, 2011; Ambrose et al., 2019).

Barbados also introduced a phased approach to eliminating SUPs and
polystyrene. Barbados introduced the longest lead time. The plan was
initially announced in 2018, with a projected two-year lead time.
Beginning in April 2019, Barbados introduced a phased approach
beginning with a ban on the importation of SUP and polystyrene items.
In July 2019, a ban on the trading of these items came into effect, and on
April 1, 2020, the full ban took effect. Stakeholders, including industry
leaders and the newly created Ministry of Marine Affairs and the Blue
Economy continue to collaborate to create sustainable alternatives to
SUPs (Simpson, 2019; The Barbados Advocate, 2019).

A consultative, phased approach was also used in Dominica, which
also plans to become the world’s first climate-resilient country (Gibbens,
2018). In December 2018, the government established a 0% import duty
on authenticated biodegradable products and reusable shopping bags.
This was followed by a comprehensive ban on all SUPs and polystyrene
which took effect in January 2019 as a part of the ‘Go Green Dominica
initiative’. The government has continued to engage with businesses and
residents towards their goal and in February 2020, another phase of

their strategy was introduced; to provide reusable jute and cotton bags
free to all households on the island (Skerrit, 2019; Government of
Dominica, 2020). As these are very recent initiatives, the results of these
efforts cannot yet be determined.

3.5. Non-compliance - fines and enforcement

Legislation addressing SUPs across the region has been primarily
aimed at mitigating the effects of poor waste management systems,
under the umbrella of environmental stewardship. Many of the legisla-
tive measures were enacted with accompanying penalties for non-
compliance. In Antigua and Barbuda, fines were applied for de-
linquency; in other countries, such as Jamaica, Belize and Barbados,
fines were a part of the original legislation (Government of Jamaica,
2018a, 2018b; Government of Barbados, 2019; Government of Antigua
and Barbuda, 2019). Details of current penalties for non-compliance are
summarized in Table 1.

Barbados has proposed fines for offenders who breach the estab-
lished bans. Under the Control of Disposable Plastic Bill, anyone found
guilty of importing, selling or using SUPs could be fined up to US
$25,000 and/or one-year imprisonment (Government of Barbados,
2019). The Government of the Bahamas stated in 2019 that they would
implement a law to take effect on January 1, 2020, introducing fines up
to US$2000 for businesses that break the law after the six-month tran-
sition period (Mckenzie, 2019). While fines in Belize are based on the
amount of plastic a person possesses, with a minimum figure based on
the threshold for the amount of plastic.

In countries where bans have been introduced, there is often weak
enforcement, which affects their effectiveness. For example, Trinidad
and Tobago introduced bans, but with a lack of clarity on its reach and

Fig. 3. Plastic bans in the Caribbean as of April 2020.

C.A. Clayton et al.


Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (xxxx) xxx

9

enforcement. In 2019, the Minister of Finance, Colm Imbert, indicated in
his presentation of the national budget that there was never a complete
ban on SUP items since, for example, 60% of the polystyrene used in
Trinidad in manufactured locally. This meant that the polystyrene ban
was only relevant to the 40% being imported. Additionally, to circum-
vent the ban, producers of plastic and Styrofoam were conducting trials
to try to make plastic more rapidly degradable with various additives.
This attempt to beat the system frustrated environmentalists, who were
irate that the government did not appear to accept that reducing the use
of plastics could help to improve the environment and create new
business opportunities (GlobalVoices, 2020). Barbados also faced some
setbacks with implementing the ban on plastics. Barbados made prep-
arations to develop a bill, specifying fines for people who broke the law
regarding the use of plastics. Barbados had envisioned implementing a
ban on the importation and sale of SUPs on April 1, 2019. However,
business owners requested an extension to get rid of their old stocks. As a
result, the date was pushed back to January 1, 2020, and then to April 1,
2020 so that citizens could make the necessary adjustments (Loop,
2019).

3.6. Lessons learned

3.6.1. Need for effective communication and provision of alternatives
Other countries have adopted various hybrid approaches. In 2013

Guyana unsuccessfully attempted to enact a ban on Styrofoam. The
attempt failed to garner support from the business community and was
subsequently rejected. In December 2015, its government announced
the ban without consultation, with an implementation date of January 1,
2016 (Stabroek News, 2015). This top-down approach left little room for
discussion, with businesses unprepared and no time to find suitable al-
ternatives. This model was closely followed by the Jamaican govern-
ment who made its announcement in September 2018 for
implementation on January 1, 2019. In Jamaica, the ban was applied to
the importation and manufacture of all SUPs, included plastic bags,
straws and Styrofoam. It was implemented through a Ministerial Order
under the Trade Act of Jamaica. This makes it easier for governments to
reinforce the bans with businesses instead of targeting individuals. In
fact, Jamaica recent conducted a Regulatory Impact Assessment, the
results of which were intended to inform or support the policy response
(NEPA, 2020). Upon implementation, both governments immediately
refused the entry of Styrofoam items into the country and banned the
manufacturing of the product (Environmental Protection Agency -
Guyana, 2015). However, the governments differed in some of the
measures adopted subsequently. For example, the government of Guy-
ana conducted an audit to access the volume of Styrofoam which was in
stock in the country (Ministry of Natural Resources, 2016). This allowed
for an inventory of stored Styrofoam to be identified and used with no
business suffering losses due to redundant stock. In Jamaica, no formal
audit was done. Instead, a three-month moratorium was given to allow
for use of existing stock.

Negative outcomes in both Guyana and Jamaica have been apparent.
Neither country provided standard alternatives for the consumers. In
Jamaica where there are local manufacturers of plastic and polystyrene
products there should have been consultations with business related to
alternatives compared to those countries who rely heavily on imported
SUPs. In Guyana, in particular, there is still a clear need for suitable
alternatives (Staff Reporter, 2019). The creativity of the Jamaican
people, however, has resulted in a number of spontaneous alternatives,
as many businesses developed branded reusable bags to substitute for
the SUPs. Unfortunately, in both cases, the public has had to pay the
price; where alternatives have been provided, they have been more
expensive (starting at US$2) than the previously issued single use item
which was not an immediate additional cost to the consumer. Addi-
tionally, Jamaica has seen the continuation of the use of SUPs and
Styrofoam products beyond the three-month moratorium initially
established (Bennett, 2019), as local manufacturers can apply for an

exemption until 2021. This seems to contradict the position taken by the
government, when it proceeded to implement the ban on the manufac-
ture, distribution and use of Styrofoam products on January 1, 2020
(Linton, 2019). There have been some positive effects as a result of the
bans; there has been a reduction in SUPs in debris and in the waste
management systems in both countries (Ministry of Communities, 2017;
Buzz Contributor, 2019). It has also stimulated the development of new
business ideas as companies work to find alternatives. Guyana is now
moving to introduce a comprehensive ban on SUPs by 2021 (Khan,
2019). The lack of effective communication with the key stakeholders at
various levels, primarily local businesses such as supermarkets and
restaurants, could have avoided many of the current pitfalls. Local
businesses in both countries continue to find creative ways to respond.
The Guyanese government has been forced to re-examine its approach,
while Jamaica has seen the emergence of a black market for SUP, which
presents an opportunity for further research.

3.6.2. Importance of lead-time
The Caribbean lifestyle has included SUPs for more than three de-

cades. This means that any proposed reform will require enough time
between announcing a change and completing the process. Inadequate
lead time can create problems, if it affects a countries ability to develop
and implement the plans necessary to effect change, as well as the time
allotted to residents to respond to the need for change (UNEP, 2018c,
2019a, 2019b). Jamaica and Guyana both introduced legislation with
very short notice (three months). The lack of prior consultation and
warning by the Governments was seen as a lack of sufficient lead time by
the private sector, which pushed back forcibly in the case of Guyana.
Short lead time might look like decisive government action but does not
allow for planned phase-out or the development and roll-out of satis-
factory alternatives. The result in both countries has been the long-term
use of the banned product, so rapid, forced compliance was actually
counter-productive. This approach typically leads to a scarcity of the
SUP item and emergence of an illegal trade.

After the initial introduction of the bans in both countries, there were
reports of significant support for the ban (Department of Environment,
2018; Morris, 2019; Guyana Times, 2019), but there are still problems
with standardized available alternatives to SUP bags. Many organiza-
tions are still without a steady supply of biodegradable single-use op-
tions, as paper bags are not manufactured domestically and have to be
imported (Charles, 2019; Guyana Times, 2019). This lack of alternatives
could have been addressed if the stakeholders had been engaged and
given more warning before the bans took effect. Programs with a short
lead time are therefore less likely to succeed. Programs with more
consultation and effective information campaigns are more likely to
work in practice. The Government of Jamaica has done little, one year
after the ban, to investigate these issues or to explore these adjustment
problems and other short-term effects, and there is a lack of reliable data
on the effects of the plastic ban on debris, waste collection and sales
(Government of Jamaica, 2018a, 2018b).

3.7. Policy recommendations to reduce SUP marine pollution in
CARICOM countries

Numerous policy instruments exist for governments of CARICOM
countries to reduce SUP marine pollution (UNEP, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c;
Diez et al., 2019). Policy instruments include legislative bans on certain
types of SUPs (Xanthos and Walker, 2017). These historically focused on
plastic shopping bags, but recently legislative bans have been expanded
to include bans on other SUPs (e.g., food packaging and utensils). Other
policy instruments to reduce SUPs includes economic instruments, such
as taxes and levies and are designed to change human behaviour and
dissuade use of certain types of plastics (i.e., problem or harmful plastics
found in the environment) (Schnurr et al., 2018). Revenues from taxes or
levies have been used in other jurisdictions to fund green initiatives,
such as education, fund recycling schemes, among others. Another

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10

policy instruments for governments of CARICOM countries to consider
implementing is extended producer responsibility (EPR). EPR strategies
leverage corporate resources to reduce SUP waste generated by con-
sumers. Implementation of EPR strategies allows local jurisdictions to
gain greater control over their waste streams (Diggle and Walker, 2020).
Finally, best practices based on UNEP (2018a) and Karasik et al. (2020)
reports that can also guide governments of CARICOM countries to
implement effective policy approaches and best practices to reduce SUP
pollution are summarized below:

Foundation: This includes activities designed to:
• Assess baseline conditions - Assessment of baseline conditions pro-

vide policymakers with evidence of categories of SUPs most
commonly found in the environment.

• Evaluate appropriateness of possible policy actions – It is important to
evaluate the most appropriate instruments that will be beneficial
in addressing specific issues identified in baseline surveys.

• Assess sustainable development impacts of preferred options - Once
appropriateness of possible actions has been assessed, govern-
ments of CARICOM countries may consider a short list of suitable
instruments.

Before selecting the most appropriate option that would address
the issues and needs identified in the baseline assessment, a key
step would be to study sustainable development impacts of short-
listed choices, taking into consideration all sectors (including food
and/or other retail) and all segments of the population. For
example, although the environmental benefits of introducing a ban
might be highly positive, the social impacts on a large part of the
population might be unsustainable, making bans not the most
desirable option (UNEP, 2018a).

Preparation: The preparatory stage is designed to engender popula-
tion support which helps in producing sustainable results. It may be
necessary to:
• Engage stakeholders - Acceptance from the broadest range of

stakeholders is important, and can be ensured through calls for
early inputs, policy discussion meetings, and wide-reaching
awareness campaigns. Special attention should be paid to map-
ping the main stakeholder groups that will be affected by the new
policy and their relative power. Being able to present evidence-
based options (informed by thorough baseline studies) can help
support selected policies and ensure effectiveness.

• Raise awareness - Resistance is likely to decrease if consumers are
aware of the social, environmental and economic impacts of mis-
managed SUPs. These can be communicated through a variety of
methods, ranging from: educational programmes, workshops in
schools, extensive multi-media awareness-raising campaigns, dis-
tribution of information material and demonstrating alternative
options to SUPs (reusable bags, reusable bottles). Campaigns
should have a clear and simple message, relevant for all
stakeholders.

• Make provision for sustainable alternatives - Before banning any
SUPs, governments may wish to verify presence of appropriate
sustainable alternatives (UNEP, 2018a).

• Provide incentives to industry - When regulating production and
consumption of SUPs, governments may face resistance from
plastic producers and from packaging importers and distributors.
To limit resistance and gain support, governments may consider
providing incentives to industry. Incentives should be introduced
long before new legislation is implemented to guarantee enough
time for plastic manufactures, distributors and retailers to adapt to
new regulations. Measures may include provisions to allow time to
adapt. For example, provide enough time for retailers to deplete
existing plastic bags stocks, begin alerting consumers of the up-
coming change and purchase new alternatives. Tax rebates and
financial incentives to stimulate production of cost-effective al-
ternatives to SUPs can also be considered (UNEP, 2018a).

• Use revenues to support environmental programs and promote inter-
national cooperation and innovation - When introducing levies on
SUPs, consideration should be given to how revenues from that
economic instrument will be used. To maximize public benefits,
revenues from levies could be used to: support specific environ-
mental projects, boost local recycling industry, create job oppor-
tunities in plastic recycling. Finance awareness initiatives which
promote for instance waste minimization. Enforce policies - To
guarantee good governance, enforcement and monitoring of pol-
icies it is important to clearly distribute and define roles and re-
sponsibilities between local, national and sub-national authorities
and organizations. For example, in the case of a levy on retailers, it
should be made clear to the retailers how and when the levy should
be collected or deposited. In the case of levies on consumers, the
public should be made aware of the costs they have to pay.
Continue to monitor SUP pollution and adjust policies as necessary - It
is important to monitor progress and effectiveness of introduced
policies and adjust accordingly (UNEP, 2018a).

4. Conclusions

As each Caribbean country has unilaterally sought to address SUPs,
there needs to be a greater consensus among the countries, and more
sharing of best practices as to the policy approach (e.g., legislative or
economic approaches or a combination of both) that would be most
effective. The consultative and engagement model adopted by most have
yielded some success, highlighting the weaknesses in the top-down
systems of Jamaica and Guyana. The Jamaica-Guyana approach would
actually be more effective if they were less abrupt and coercive, and
included support for substitutes and the use of legislative and other tools
to nudge consumers towards these more environmentally friendly
options.

Further, regulatory (e.g., bans) or economic (e.g., levies) instruments
should be introduced in stages, and move forward in phases, with edu-
cation campaigns and good marketing of alternatives. Countries should
work more closely with all stakeholders and the public, ensuring that
they are aware of the direction of travel and the timetable. Adequate
lead times (i.e., more than a year) would help, especially if supported by
research and development. This is closer to the model used in Antigua
and Barbuda. Penalties are usually necessary to deal with recalcitrant
operators, but in many cases a system of phased substitution, with
adequate alternatives available, would make the process far easier. Once
the public is persuaded of the case for switching, the battle is largely
won.

Economic instruments, such as SUP levies or taxes can also be used to
contribute to development of more sustainable alternatives. Antigua and
Barbuda, for example, promoted cloth bags that local tailors and
seamstresses were taught to make, and ensured that there were several
alternatives for Styrofoam (including paper and a cardboard made from
starch). These alternatives were developed in partnership between the
government and private sector. Therefore, it is important to examine
both the SUP products currently in use and any proposed alternatives to
ensure that the transition from the status quo is a substantial net gain for
society and for the environment.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

C. Andrea Clayton: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal anal-
ysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Funding
acquisition. Tony R. Walker: Conceptualization, Validation, Writing -
review & editing, Resources, Supervision, Project administration. Joana
Carlos Bezerra: Data curation, Writing - review & editing, Funding
acquisition. Issahaku Adam: Writing - review & editing, Visualization,
Funding acquisition.

C.A. Clayton et al.


Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (xxxx) xxx

11

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work
reported in this paper.

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Marine Pollution Bulletin xxx (xxxx) xxx

12

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Policy responses to reduce single-use plastic marine pollution in the Caribbean
1 Introduction
1.1 The Caribbean

2 Methodology
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Plastic in the Caribbean
3.2 Regional strategies to reduce plastic use and marine pollution
3.3 First adopter advantage - a multi-pronged approach – educate, engage and alternatives - the case of Antigua and Barbuda
3.4 A consultative phased approach
3.5 Non-compliance - fines and enforcement
3.6 Lessons learned
3.6.1 Need for effective communication and provision of alternatives
3.6.2 Importance of lead-time

3.7 Policy recommendations to reduce SUP marine pollution in CARICOM countries

4 Conclusions
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Declaration of competing interest
References


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