2021-07-30T15:43:07Z
Republic of Ethiopia (2003) EPA Environmental impact assessment guideline for mineral and petroleum operation projects.pdf
Republic of Ethiopia (2003) EPA Environmental impact assessment guideline for mineral and petroleum operation projects
Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia
Environmental Protection Authority
Environmental Impact Assessment
Guideline
For
Mineral and Petroleum Operation
Projects
NOT FOR CITATION
This guidelines is still under development and shall be binding after
consensus is reached between the Environmental Protection Authority and
the Environmental Units of Competent Sectoral Agencies
December. 2003
Table of Content
1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................................1
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE GUIDELINE................................................................................................................................2
1.2 OVERVIEW OF THE MINING INDUSTRY AND MINES LEGAL.............................................................................2
FRAMEWORKS IN ETHIOPIA................................................................................................................................................2
1.3 POLICY AND LEGAL REQUIREMENTS.......................................................................................................................3
The environmental policy, mineral and petroleum operation laws are some of the tools introduced
in order to safeguard the environment form impacts related to these area...............................................3
1.4 REQUIREMENTS OF THE ETHIOPIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY.......................................................................3
The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (1997), with regard to the minerals and energy (fossil fuel or
petroleum and coal) development and use impact on the environment are spinning around the
following points.....................................................................................................................................................................3
1.5 CATEGORIES OF THE MINING LICENSES IN ETHIOPIA..........................................................................................3
The license for mine for minerals in Ethiopia is subdivided further into:......................................................3
1 .Artisanal mining;..............................................................................................................................................................3
2. Small scale mining; and................................................................................................................................................3
3 .Large scale mining.........................................................................................................................................................3
1.6 REQUIREMENTS OF THE MINING AND PETROLEUM OPERATION LAWS..........................................................3
1.7 THE SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)...........................................................................4
2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND MITIGATION CONSIDERATIONS.............................................................4
2.1 EXPLORATION.......................................................................................................................................................................5
The exploration for minerals has two stages:.............................................................................................................................5
2.1.1 SURFACE EXPLORATION...............................................................................................................................................5
Airborne and ground-based geochemical, and geophysical surveys, line cutting, stripping, and
trenching, road/trail building and or helicopter transport, bulk sampling are the main activities of
exploration..............................................................................................................................................................................5
2.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:.......................................................................................................................................5
Environmental impacts of surface exploration are:..................................................................................................................5
2.1.3 MITIGATION OF SURFACE EXPLORATION IMPACT................................................................................................5
3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION......................................................................................................................................5
3.1 THE MAJOR IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION........................................................................................6
3.1.2 MITIGATION MEASURES FOR IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION.................................................6
4 MITIGATION,COMPENSATION AND REABILITATION COST CONSIDERATIONS.......................................7
4.1 MINE DEVELOPMENT (ESTABLISHMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE).....................................................................7
4.1.1 IMPACTS OF MINE DEVELOPMENT.............................................................................................................................7
4.1.2 QUARRIES........................................................................................................................................................................8
4.1.3 IMPACTS OF QUARRY SITE..................................................................................................................................................8
4.1.4 Mitigation...........................................................................................................................................................................8
5 MINING (EXTRACTION OF MINERALS) AND MINERAL PROCESSING (SEPARATION OF ORE
MINERALS FROM GANGUE),........................................................................................................................................9
5.1 MINE CLASSIFICATION...................................................................................................................................................9
5.1.1 SURFACE MINING:..........................................................................................................................................................9
5.1.2 IMPACT OF SURFACE MINING...................................................................................................................................10
5.1.3 Impact of artisanal mining...............................................................................................................................................10
5.1.4 Mitigation measures of artisanal mining impact.............................................................................................................10
5.1.5 Impact of large scale surface mining...............................................................................................................................10
5.1.6 MITIGATION MEASURES OF LARGE SCALE SURFACE MINING IMPACTS..........................................................11
5.2 SUBSURFACE MINING:................................................................................................................................................12
5.2.1 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE MINING................................................................................13
6 HYDROCARBONS (PETROLEUM AND COAL) AND THE ENVIRONMENT.....................................................14
6.1 GROUPS OF FOSSIL FUELS...........................................................................................................................................14
6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF FOSSIL FUELS......................................................................................................14
6.2.1 IMPACTS OF COAL MINE ON ENVIRONMENT.........................................................................................................14
6.2.2 IMPACTS OF COAL UTILIZATION...............................................................................................................................15
6.2.3 Mitigation of coal impacts...............................................................................................................................................15
6.2.4 IMPACTS OF OIL AND GAS ON ENVIRONMENT.......................................................................................................15
6.2.5 MITIGATION OF THE OIL FUEL IMPACTS:...............................................................................................................16
7 SMELTING (RECOVERING OF METALS), REFINING, AND MARKETING.....................................................16
7.1 MITIGATION OF ACID DRAINAGE FROM MINE AND SMELTING SITES............................................................17
8 MINE CLOSURE AND DECOMMISSIONING............................................................................................................17
8.1 IMPACTS OF IMPROPERLY CLOSED MINES.............................................................................................................18
8.1.1 MITIGATION..................................................................................................................................................................18
8.1.2 Mitigation of mine site impacts........................................................................................................................................19
8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES DURING DECOMMISSIONING....................................................................................20
8.3 ACTIVITIES (MITIGATION):..........................................................................................................................................20
8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AFTER CLOSURE..............................................................................................20
8.4 MONITORING MEASURES.............................................................................................................................................21
9 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF MINES CLOSURE ON LOCAL COMMUNITY............................22
9.1 MITIGATION....................................................................................................................................................................22
9.2 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IMPACTS..........................................................................................................................22
9.3 MITIGATION OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IMPACT.............................................................................................23
9.4 GENDER DIMENSION OF MINING...............................................................................................................................23
9.4.1 IMPACTS OF MINING ON WOMEN:..........................................................................................................................24
9.4.1 MITIGATION...................................................................................................................................................................24
10 NVIRONMENTAL PLANNING......................................................................................................................................24
11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................................25
Appendix 1 AIR, WATER AND SOIL QUALITY STANDARDS................................................................................................26
APPENDIX 2 SUGGESTED TABLE OF CONTENT FOR MINING STAGE EIA STUDY REPORT....................................28
APPENDIX 3 CHECK LIST OF MINERAL AND PETROLEUM OPERATION AND MINERAL PROCESSING...............31
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................................................34
GLOSSARY
Acid mine drainage All sources of acid water in a mining operation, i.e. oxidation of sulphidic
mine waste, typically occurring as a runoff or seepage from waste rock stock
piles, tailings impoundments or coal rejects
Adit A horizontal underground passage directly connected to the surface and
intended to serve as a passage for underground mine.
Aquifer Rock or sediment in a formation, group of formations, or part of a formation
that is saturated and sufficiently permeable to transmit economic quantity of
water to wells and springs.
Artisanal mining Any operation which consists extracting and concentrating mineral substance
to obtain marketable product by using traditional or manual methods and
procedures
Base metals Base metals considered to be copper, lead or zinc, tin, zinc, mercury, and
antimony
Baseline information Monitoring data acquired prior to the beginning of a project such as
mining. This provides a basis for comparison and identification of charges
caused by the mining process
Catchments (drainage) The land area from which surface runoff drains into a stream (river)
system
Coal is a source of energy formed largely by burial of forest and swamp type of
vegetation under high pressure and temperature.
Closure The act of closing or the condition of a mine being closed
Effluent Any waste product, whether treated or not, from an industrial process, or other
human activities, that is discharged into the environment
Environmental impact Any change to the environment, either beneficial or adverse, wholly or
partly resulting from an organization’s activities, products or services
Exploration Exploration includes all activities involved in the discovery and evaluation of
mineral deposit
Flora All plant life in a region
Heap leach To dissolve minerals or metals out of an ore heap using chemicals
Hydrocarbon Chemical compounds whose molecules are composed of atoms of solely two
elements, carbon and hydrogen, whose combustion reaction produce a very
large amount of energy.
Industrial minerals and rocks Minerals and rocks of economic value, exclusive of metallic
minerals, fossil fuels and gemstones, comprises of construction and non-
construction materials, such as aggregates, cement making materials, building
and dimension stone and ceramics and refractory, abrasives, fillers , etc.
Leachates Solutions of chemicals leached out by water percolating through waste landfill,
overburden dumps, soil stockpile or contaminated undisturbed ground such as
that around underground storage tanks.
Mining Extraction of ore from the ground
Mineral development Establishment of the entire infrastructure of a mine site
Mineral or petroleum Operation All activities involved in the exploration and development of
mineral and petroleum reserves. The operation includes office planning and
preparation, field work such as exploration, infrastructure construction, mining
(extraction of mineral or petroleum), refining and marketing of mineral or
petroleum resource
Mineral processing (ore dressing) Milling of the ore, separation of ore minerals from
gangues, separation of the ore minerals into concentrate
Oil shale compact mudstone and clay sedimentary rock consisting of organic matter
which yields oil and gas when heated in oxygen less environment
Open pit mining Is defined as the mining of ores by surface mining methods where waste or
overburden is first removed and the mineral is broken and loaded
Operator/ owner or proponent An individual or a company that has ownership and/ or control of
a mineral / petroleum property either through lease of mining claims or other
type of ownership
Ore Economic metallic mineral deposits, industrial mineral deposits, and energy
mineral deposits
Overburden Unconsolidated material that must be removed from its original place to expose
the bedrock or ore body. It consists of topsoil and subsoil.
Petroleum Liquid substance composed principally of hydrocarbons which occur in
underground natural reservoirs
Pollutant Any solid, liquid or gas or combination including waste smokes, dust, fumes
and odour or noise, heat or anything declared by regulation to be a pollutant
Pollution To make unclear, impure, or corrupt; desecrate; defile; contaminate; dirty or
usually implies unnatural circumstances either physically, chemically, or
biologically impure that adversely or unreasonably impairs the existing quality
of the environment
Precious metals Metals of gold, silver and platinum groups
Prospecting Part of exploration, which deals with direct looking for indications of ore
mineralization in outcrops in sediments and soils
Quarry Open or surface working areas usually used for the extraction of construction
materials, such as building stones,
Reclamation The process of returning a disturbed area to its natural state, or to a state
suitable for equivalent or superior use or benefit
Rehabilitation Restoration work done during or at the end of a mining project which reduces
the physical, and chemical hazards on site, and which may also improve visual
aesthetics and the potential for some other beneficial use of the land to the
original or equally satisfactory condition.
Rock waste Rock materials of no economic value other than overburden that must be
removed to excavate the ore
Sealing The securing of mine entries, drifts, adits, slopes, shafts, and boreholes with
suitable materials to protect against fire, gas, and water emissions and for the
safety of the public
Shaft A vertical opening used as a passage directly with underground mining area
Smelting Recovering metals from mineral concentrates
Soil The upper portion of the earth’s layer that has been weathered by
environmental factors
Subsidence Gradual sinking of landform to a lower level as a result of earth movement and
mining operations
Surface mining Strip mining and open pit mining. Strip mining consists of stripping away layers
of soil and waste rocks over a mineral deposit often found in relatively
horizontal geological layers. Open pit mining involves excavating the earth’s
surface in a concentrated location to access the underlying mineral ore body.
Tailings Materials rejected from a mill after the recoverable minerals have been
extracted or Waste products arising from the grinding and treatment of rocks
with chemicals to extract desired minerals
Toxic Inorganic and organic chemicals even in extremely low concentrations may kill
organisms or reduce their growth
Undergrounds mining (subsurface mining) The ore extracted below ground by digging shafts
and adits as a passage to the underground and for ventilation
Waste Any solid, liquid or gas or combination that is left over, surplus or is unwanted
byproduct from any business or domestic activities or substance or mixture of
substance which has no current economic use
Water balance Calculation of all water gains and losses related to an operations such as
mine sites
1 INTRODUCTION
Mines and petroleum production bring prosperity to a country, in particular, to the area in
which they are established. One mine creates about three direct jobs: 1, directly for the
community, 2, for service giving organizations, and, 3, for construction industries. It can
also create indirect jobs for financial institutions and others. However, mines and
petroleum production activities are bound to have environmental impacts.
The technological development today, starting from the house utensils, electrical wires,
cars, building and road construction, space shuttles, medicines need mineral products. The
world demand for minerals will continue to increase and the world will continue to deplete
minerals. To balance the impacts of mining and petroleum productions on environment and
the demand for mineral, designing tools that can help for a safe and sustainable utilization
of the mineral resources is needed. One of the tools used for safe and sustainable
development of mineral resources is exercising environmental impact assessment
guidelines. To protect the environment from serious impacts that might arise from any
mining operation preparation of this guideline has become necessary. This guideline has
summarized:
Background/ or chronological development of the mining industry of Ethiopia briefly,
i.e.
- The exploration history and the development towards modern mine opening
and artisanal mines and their effect on the environment.
- In Ethiopia the artisanal mines tend to do more damage to the environment
with greater cost per unit of out put than modern mining. For this reason a
special attention is given to the environmental impact and mitigation
measures of artisanal mine,
- A review of petroleum and mineral operation laws relevant to the environment
and the Environmental Policy of Ethiopia,
The activities involved in minerals and hydrocarbon exploration, exploitation, refining
and marketing. This part of the guideline has covered the exploration phases which
includes the preliminary, advanced and deposit evaluation, and development of mine
(infrastructure development), production (mine), closure and post closure fellow up,
The impacts of exploration, surface and subsurface mining, mineral processing and
marketing on the environment and suggested mitigation measures and
environmental planning are stated in every corresponding sections .
Air, water and soil quality standards and checklist are included in the appendices.
The guideline is organized in such away that the impact of exploration is considered first,
development phase and mining phases separately with transfer of environmental
information from the preceding phase of operation (activities) to the next phase. The
preceding environmental study is a base to the following phase of activity. The
environmental impacts of mines and petroleum operations are related with the activities of
airborne geophysics, regional geological survey, ground geophysics and geochemistry
survey, stripping and trenching, sampling and assaying, drilling, infrastructure
development, mine plant construction, mine mills, smelting, tailing and waste rock deposit,
and marketing. Preliminary environmental study (base line survey) during the early
exploration, and full scale environmental impact assessment study during an advanced
exploration phase (underground shaft opening and bulk sampling of several hundred tones
of ore), development and production stage is necessary. in order to suppress the
environmental impact, taking mitigation measures and progressive rehabilitation during
operation and rehabilitation during decommissioning and monitoring after closure are
recommended.
Guidelines for environmental impact assessment can vary depending up on the type of
minerals to be explored and mined and method of mining, the law and regulations of the
Federal and Regional States, the size and location of the mine, type of support facilities
(technology), the environmental resources that will be affected and other factors.
1
Therefore, This guideline is not intending to be an exhaustive guide for environmental
impact assessment study of every mineral and petroleum operation projects. Rather it is a
document containing sufficient information relevant to environment protection measures to
be taken by operators engaged in mineral and petroleum exploration, regulatory bodies,
interested groups and the public who seek a generalized guideline to undertake an overall
environmental impact study that should be incorporated in report of mineral operations.
The need of high level national commitment to a clean and healthier environment is
growing all over the world. The ultimate responsibilities for the protection of the quality of
our environment should be a cooperative endeavor to be shared by Government, private
enterprise, and by the individual citizen. Among these groups the mining and petroleum
community should take their share of responsibility to protect the quality of our
environment.
The exercising of this guideline by the operators and others will be best when used in
conjunction with the procedural and review guidelines. This guideline document may
require updating in a course of time as more practical experience is achieved.
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE GUIDELINE
Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) is in charge of the environmental protection and
sustainable use of natural resources. This can be exercised by controlling the
implementation of environmental planes of development projects. In order to achieve EPA
its objectives introduction and exercising of various tools and guidelines in various
development sectors and regulatory units are necessary. In light of this an attempt has
been made to prepare environmental impact assessment guideline for the mineral and
petroleum operation projects in Ethiopia.
The specific objectives of this environmental impact assessments guideline is to establish a system and
provide guidance that enable to the operators engaged in mineral and petroleum operations and other
concerned parties to bring the impacts and mitigation measures into focus at such an early stage in the
planning process that those impacts may either be mitigated or avoided by means of:
Modify and improve design,
Better way of mining,
Ensure efficient of resource use,,
Enhance environment and social benefits,
Avoid, minimize or remedy adverse impact,
Identify key impacts and measures for mitigating them,
Avoid serious and irreversible damage to the environment,
Protect human health and safety,
Ensure that residual impacts are within acceptable level,
1.2 OVERVIEW OF THE MINING INDUSTRY AND MINES LEGAL
FRAMEWORKS IN ETHIOPIA
The modern mineral exploration commenced in 1867 by Blanfor, British Geologist. Since
then the exploration activities were on and off. During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia,
exploration for minerals accelerated significantly than ever before. To day the exploration
for minerals is progressing with the assistance of modern technology. The establishment of
Geological Survey of Ethiopia accelerated further the exploration activities.
However, the discovery of economic mineral deposits were limited to the Adola Gold
deposit and other few industrial minerals (soda ash, rock salt, potash, ceramics, etc) and
construction materials (cement raw materials, dimension stones such as marble, granite,
2
etc.). At present the mining industry (extraction of minerals) in Ethiopia is not very
important in terms of its distribution, size, and its economic contribution.
According to reports released by the Ministry of Mines and other published studies more
than 500,000 people are engaged in traditional construction material production and gold
mining along several river banks and residue soil developed on primary gold deposits.
Extraction of industrial minerals and rocks and the artisanal mining activities for gold have
already been reported to have caused environmental impacts, i.e, human death, erosion of
arable land, etc.. The traditional miners at place use mercury, and remove plants which can
cause change to the environment due to soil destruction, chemicalization of soil and water.
In the Ethiopian case the environmental problem associated with the traditional mining
activities is more sever than in the modern mines which have legal entities. The traditional
miners have not fulfilled legal requirements, no control of gold trade, mining planning,
safety procedure, no documentation, poor sanitation condition, and no proper medical
services. All those problems can cause environmental and social problems.
Digging, creating embankments, clearing shrubs, and trees contribute to the degradation of
arable land. Dust produced by crushing, digging, sluicing can cause eye troubles, skin
diseases, respiratory infections, and security problem, child labor, child prostitution are also
problems associated with artisanal mining.
1.3 POLICY AND LEGAL REQUIREMENTS
The environmental policy, mineral and petroleum operation laws are some of the tools
introduced in order to safeguard the environment form impacts related to these area.
1.4 REQUIREMENTS OF THE ETHIOPIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (1997), with regard to the minerals and energy (fossil
fuel or petroleum and coal) development and use impact on the environment are spinning
around the following points.
Long-term usability of land be safeguarded;
Promote environmental protection, safe mining method and reclamation of
abandoned mining area;
Establish a guarantee for the restoration of the land to its previous conditions;
Promote development and sustainable utilization of renewable energy resources;
Reduce use of fossil energy;
Energy conservation;
1.5 CATEGORIES OF THE MINING LICENSES IN ETHIOPIA
The mining proclamation No. 52/1993, part I, article 2(9) has classified the mine licenses for
mineral operations into three license ranks:
Prospecting license;
Exploration license, and
Mine for minerals (exploitation) license.
3
The license for mine for minerals in Ethiopia is subdivided further into:
1. Artisanal mining;
2. Small scale mining; and
3. Large scale mining.
1.6 REQUIREMENTS OF THE MINING AND PETROLEUM OPERATION LAWS
The proclamation No. 52/1993, mentioned above has provided different degree of right to
the various licensees to use the natural resources, such as:
Construction minerals and rocks, water and timber is allowed, but is restricted not to
use surface water if such use of water results in substantial reduction for other users
or if it results in pollution. Dam construction and river diversion also need prior
approval by concerned authority;
If displacement of the occupants is required the licensee should negotiate with the
occupant for compensation payment or the Government intervenes and settle the
dispute between the occupant and licensee;
Construct infrastructure necessary for operations, communications, roads, power,
industrial, administrative, residential, medical and other buildings necessary for
mining operations is permitted on temporary bases for prospecting, exploration and
artisanal mining operators. All construction of permanent nature can be removed by
the licensee or abandoned and become Government property;
The Petroleum Operations Proclamation No.295 of 1986 has stated areas precluded
from petroleum operations; such as anthropological, archaeological, and historical
objects and sites; prevent damage to subsurface formations and ensure petroleum,
mud or any other fluids of substance do not waste or escape from the hole to
surface,
If the Ministry of Mines thinks that the petroleum operations may endanger persons
or property, harm natural resources or the general environment, can order to
discontinue the operations. Environmental considerations with regard to the
petroleum operations mainly focuses on exploration boreholes and their
surroundings. It has not considered the environmental damage that might occur
during the pre-drilling exploration activities and during production.
1.7 THE SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)
EIA study of mineral and petroleum operations considers how the exploration,
development, processing and marketing of minerals will affect the:
Local human population,
Local and regional wildlife population,
Local land use and overall ecology,
Change to land and water regimes and land contours,
The disposal of mine waste and tailings, together with other issues such as
transportation of product to market all have to be evaluated.
4
The consequences of mineral, and hydrocarbon resource exploration and development on
the environment is enormous and complex. Therefore, EIA study should be conducted by a
team composed of:
Subject area expert (environmental geologist),
Pollution control,
Land use,
Socio-economist,
Ecologist, and
Environmental health experts.
Mineral and petroleum operation are projects of many stages. The collection of data for
environmental impact assessment for mineral and petroleum operations should be made as
part of this process. The environmental impact assessment study in mineral and petroleum
operations should be separated into two categories. One is for operation that might
terminate in the exploration stage, and the second for operations that might intend to a
development and mine minerals and petroleum production. Basic base line data
information needed include:
Geological, hydrogeological, botanical, zoological, archaeological, historical,
cultural, sociological, and economic,
The existing land use,
The relative abundance, quality and regenerative capacity of natural resources in
the area,
The absorption capacity of the natural environment
Trans-boundary impact and complexity,
Provide basic information for assessing any changes,
Set the initial level of element concentrations of surficial materials to be
monitored in monitoring programs,
2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND MITIGATION CONSIDERATIONS
The purpose of mitigation is:
Find better way of developing mineral and petroleum resources,
Enhance environmental and social benefits,
Avoid, minimize or remedy adverse impacts,
Ensure that residual impacts are within acceptable limit,
2.1 Exploration
The exploration for minerals has two stages:
Surface exploration, and
Subsurface exploration.
5
2.1.1 SURFACE EXPLORATION
Airborne and ground-based geochemical, and geophysical surveys, line cutting, stripping,
and trenching, road/trail building and or helicopter transport, bulk sampling are the main
activities of exploration.
2.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:
Environmental impacts of surface exploration are:
Trail/road and trenching related erosion
Tree clearing during construction of paths of field trucks,
Seismic lines, and aircraft strips,
Habitat disruption;
Noise pollution,
Landscape distraction
Digging, trenching and excavation, quarrying, and use of explosives
Camp garbage;
Dissemination of diseases in the human, animal or vegetation populations with the moving vehicles and
workers;
Camp sites impact due to production of waste, used engine oil, packing garbage
2.1.3 MITIGATION OF SURFACE EXPLORATION IMPACT
Up grade and use existing tracks and roads;
Refilling pits and trenches to their initial situation.
Minimize vegetation clearing along seismic lines
By curving survey profiles around prominent trees,
Using explosives instead of vibrosis,
Limiting the radius of explosive effect on aquifers,
Minimizing clearing trees at comp sites
3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
The surface exploration is followed by subsurface exploration The subsurface exploration
can cause diverse effects both on the surface and subsurface environments. The
environmental issues, impacts and mitigation indicated above for surface exploration can
also work for the early stage of subsurface exploration.
6
3.1 THE MAJOR IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
Tree clearing
At well sits,
Camp sits,
All the way along the access, and
Seismic and other geophysical profiles;
Increase in traffic density;
Disturbance of subsurface formations;
Introduction of drilling fluids, drilling chemicals, surface water and drilling oils to
subsurface environment, such as;
Salt saturated fluid,
Oil-based fluid;
Gas-based fluid;
Reagents such a sodium acid pyrophosphate, sodium tetra phosphate,
lignite, tannin, low viscosity carbo-xynethyle, etc.
Draining of chemicals used for sample analysis at well site, such as HCl,
HNO3, K3Fe(CN)6;
Morphological leveling (alteration) along the access;
Various level aquifer water mixing;
The production of camp waste, used engine oils, shipping garbage;
The risk of accidents (mechanical, electrical, blasting, etc);
Change of the existing land use (if drilling site lays on farm land);
Causing social disorder (change of social structure and customs, displacement);
The excavation of exploratory shafts, Adits or declines,
The digging of test pits and trenches, and the associated removal of material for bulk
testing.
The installation of a portable pilot plant or other temporary facility for subsurface ore
and rock testing purposes, or any other significant ground disturbance conducted to
determine the existence of a commercially exploitable mineral deposit can destroy
natural setup of rocks and can trigger artificial discontinuity on the rocks ,
7
3.1.2 MITIGATION MEASURES FOR IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE
EXPLORATION
Minimize noise and dust when working near residential areas;
Decrease the number of vehicles,
Regular servicing vehicles,
Control noise sources,
Use good blast design.
Keep site clean and tidy
Remove all rubbish;
Remove all equipment and litter from the site;
Identify any rare or endangered species and ensure their protection;
Avoid spreading any plant or animal disease or noxious weeds;
Use existing tracks wherever possible and keep clearing to an absolute minimum;
Design new tracks to go around significant trees and roll vegetation, where necessary,
so as to maintain topsoil and root systems;
Avoid environmentally sensitive locations such as creek banks and areas subject to
erosion;
All fuel, and chemicals should be stored properly to avoid contamination of water or
land;
Ensure saline or contaminated water and drill fluids are not discharged into the
surrounding environment via sumps, controlled drainage etc;
Drill holes should be capped, permanently plug or seal or filled in (grouted), excavations
back filled or fenced if they are to be left open and markers removed;
Avoid unnecessary disturbance to surface soil to prevent erosion and retain as much
vegetation as possible; stabilize surface, if possible,
Surface re-contouring or diversion to establish drainage pattern
Minimize risk of fire;
Where vegetation has to be cleared, stockpile the topsoil (separately from the subsoil)
and replace on disturbed areas (seeded or fertilized if required);
Disturbed areas should be ripped to facilitate re-vegetation. The uneven surface will
retain moisture from rainfall and windblown plant seed;
Arrangements should be made for periodic monitoring and assessment of remedial
action;
4 MITIGATION,COMPENSATION AND REABILITATION COST CONSIDERATIONS
Mining and petroleum operation environmental impacts mitigation and rehabilitation and
associated costs occur throughout the cycle of exploration, development, mineral
extraction, beneficiation, processing petroleum production, and transportation. The
feasibility study of projects should consider and integrate the environmental cost of the
project.
Direct environmental costs
Assessment cost;
Base-line study cost,
Environmental impact analyses and report preparation cost;
Prevention cost, such as tailing dams construction;
Mitigation cost such as gaseous emission control and effluent/discharge control cost;
Closure and reclamation cost;
Waste disposal and contaminant control;
8
Waste and disposal stabilization,
Backfill of previous mined-out openings;
Compensation cost to affected parties or for irrecoverable damage to the environment;
Indirect environmental cost, such as telephone, electrical, transportation cost,
Management cost such as
Monitoring, stuff salary, training, etc should be taken into consideration during the
financial analysis of the project.
4.1 MINE DEVELOPMENT (ESTABLISHMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE)
The activities involved in mine infrastructure development are:
Site preparation for mining
- Removing vegetation
- Leveling, cut and fill operations, excavating,
- Quarry opening and the like
4.1.1 IMPACTS OF MINE DEVELOPMENT
Evapo-transpiration regime imbalance,
Excessive erosion,
Quarries can result in ponds, ragged topography, etc,
Slope instability,
Change in stream flow rate patterns,
Increase turbidity of streams and lakes
Stream sedimentation;
Degradation of stream and river beds resulting from road building and
drainage change;
Obstruction of fish reproduction;
Dust problems,
Habitat fragmentation i.e. roads disrupt:
Calving/rearing grounds,
Key forage areas,
Movement and migratory routes
9
Increased wildlife mortality;
Collision between vehicles and wildlife;
Uncontrolled hunting, poaching;
Pollutants in pristine areas;
Chemicalization of soil:
Gas, oil, drill-core slurry, ground core assay chemicals;
Abandoned structures;
Garbage and noise;
4.1.2 QUARRIES
Quarries are opened for production of construction material such as selected materials for
roads construction, dimension stones for buildings, gravel and aggregates, and ceramic and
cement raw materials, etc.
Activities undertaking in quarry development are:
Drilling
Overburden removal (disposal)
Plant site excavation,
Quarry development,
Blasting,
Road and access construction,
Formation of vertical cliff,
Development of ponds,
Erection of plant and ancillary structures
Landform (ragged topography) creation,
Accumulation sites of huge dirt
Mass wasting (erosion)
4.1.3 Impacts of quarry site
Ponds developed in a quarry can serve as breeding ground for water born disease
and mosquitoes,
Children who swim in quarry ponds could draw down and die and can be a threat to
animals,
The vertical cliffs can cause death to animals and human live,
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Land slide and land fall,
Production of dust,
Overburden disposal accumulation,
Affecting farm land or cause land use change,
4.1.4 Mitigation
Restoration of the completed overburden disposal areas
Should be cultivated and seeded and tree planted,
Adopt the safest quarry opening method,
Eliminate hazardous high walls
Shooting down the high walls
Cover by soil and re-vegetation
Establish appropriate quarry drainage system,
Rehabilitate quarries and refill irregular and level surfaces around quarry sites,
Re-vegetate abandoned quarry sites
5 MINING (EXTRACTION OF MINERALS) AND MINERAL PROCESSING (SEPARATION OF ORE
MINERALS FROM GANGUE),
A mine site is place of activities of:
Digging,
Transportation (barges/air access routes),
Energy infrastructures (power lines) tailings pond, waste rock piles, and processing
plants construction,
Stripping/storing of overburden of soil, ore extraction, crushing/grinding of ore, flotation
or chemical concentration of ore, mine and surface water treatment,
Storage of waste rock and tailings.
Acid drainage does occur when sulfide minerals are exposed to weathering and react with
water and oxygen to produce acidic solutions, such as sulfuric acid. The acid leaches
release heavy metals such as The mining toxic pollutants include the following:
Antimony and compounds;
Arsenic and compounds;
Asbestos;
Beryllium and compounds;
Cadmium and compounds;
11
Chromium and compounds;
Copper and compounds;
Lead and compounds;
Mercury and compounds;
Nickel and compounds;
Selenium and compounds;
Silver and compounds;
lead, zinc, copper, arsenic, selenium, mercury and cadmium are the elements known as
heavy metal.
5.1 MINE CLASSIFICATION
Following the surface and subsurface exploration, if the feasibility study proves the mineral
deposit to be commercial, the whole operation transforms from exploration to extraction of
minerals. Mines are classified in to:
Surface mine;
Subsurface mine.
5.1.1 SURFACE MINING:
Artisanal mining
Open pit mining ,
In bench or steps,
Overburden removed by stripping,
Quarrying (dimension stone),
Open cast or strip mining, overburden removed,
Auger mining,
Aqueous extraction (placer mining and solution mining).
5.1.2 IMPACT OF SURFACE MINING
5.1.3 Impact of artisanal mining
Artisanal miners and small scale miners tend to do more damage to the environment than
those workin
Digging and creating:
12
- Embankments,
- Trenches
- Excavated pits,
- Land slides,
- Tailing pile in river beds,
- Deforestation,
- Dust production,
- Waste mineral resources,
- River siltation,
- Hazardous to death,
Exposure to dust
Exposure to chemicals, heat, lack of oxygen,
Erosion damage,
Social unrest,
Effect on the ecosystem,
5.1.4 Mitigation measures of artisanal mining impact
Establishing legal and institutional conditions,
Provision of technical assistance,
Introduce mining extension services,
Establish authority structure in the mining site,
Establishment of incentive scheme to reduce damage on environment,
o Providing picks, sluice boxes, etc.
Promotion of artisanal miners to small scale mine cooperatives.
5.1.5 Impact of large scale surface mining
Impacts on physical stability
Destruction and disruption of vegetation;
Removal of top soils,
Disruption of natural drainage pattern and land use;
Impacts of chemicalization (acide mine drainage)
13
Erosion of cleared areas and soil overburden dumps leading to sedimentation and
pollution of water courses due to;
Imbalance of acidity and alkalinity
Heavy metals from tailings and process chemicals
Suspended solids (turbidity) due to:
inadequate setting in tailings pond
wave action on tailings pond
high runoff over un vegetated loose material
Dust created during operations creating visibility problems and loss of agricultural
production;
Water consumption effect;
Visual impacts,
Modification of land forms,
Noise and vibration effect from machinery;
Blast effects;
Silicosis and other respiratory problems.
5.1.6 MITIGATION MEASURES OF LARGE SCALE SURFACE MINING IMPACTS
Restore the land to a condition capable of supporting pre-mining uses or higher or
better uses;
Stabilize slopes by
Flattening slopes
Construct toe berm
Establish vegetation or place riprap,
Provide stable spillway and overflow
Restore the approximate original contour of the land;
stabilize surface areas and spoil piles to control erosion and air and water pollution;
Develop a top soil management,
Reuse topsoil in rehabilitation program,
Control reactions,
Control chemical migration,
14
Collect and treat,
Remove, segregate, protect, and replace topsoil or other strata shown to be more
suitable for supporting vegetation;
Utilize special handling for the various soil horizons present in prime farmland
Create appropriate water impoundments that are stable and that protect water
quality;
Seal auger holes to protect drainage;
Minimize disturbance to the prevailing hydrologic balance on and off the mine site;
Construct stable and re-vegetated surface disposal areas for mine wastes, and
tailings;
Treat, bury, or dispose of acid-forming, toxic, or combustible waste materials to
prevent water contamination;
Control acid drainage and or leaching of metals or contaminants
Underwater disposal to control reactions
Pre-treatment-blending of alkaline material to mitigate acid drainage
Detoxify by flushing with water or with lime solution
Use explosives in accordance with existing federal and regional laws ;
Construct and maintain access roads so that erosion, siltation, water pollution,
damage to fish and wild life or their habitat, or damage to public or private property
will be prevented;
Upgrade and use existing roads,
Reduce road congestion.
Refrain from road construction that will seriously alter the flow of streams or
drainage channels;
Re-vegetate disturbed lands with diverse, effective, and permanent species native to
the area;
Protect off site areas from slides or damage occurring during the mining and
reclamation operations;
Place excess spoil material in such a manner to assure stability and proper drainage
and prevent erosion;
Use the best technology currently available to minimize disturbance and adverse
impacts on fish, wildlife, and environmental values;
Progressive backfilling to minimize land disturbance;
Minimize dust migration
15
Use dust control equipments like covers or control devices for crushing and
milling to avoid the generation of dust; watering for dusty roads,
Minimize area of stripping,
Rehabilitate mined area as soon as possible,
Consider using binders on haul roads
Minimization of acid mine drainage generation;
Diversion of leachates from waste heaps to avoid contact with and contamination
of surface water and groundwater;
Use sedimentation ponds,
Harvesting water,
Minimization of fresh water intake;
Use of ditches to divert surface runoff from tailing ponds;
Collection and recycling of waste oils and lubricants;
Prevention of spills of chemicals;
Packaging as required and labeling in languages necessary to identify the
material
Task and safety training for transporters
Provision of appropriate storage area for chemicals and fuels,
Avoidance of the use of toxic floatation agents;
Control of noise:
Through the use of berms and mufflers,
Use good blast design,
5.2 SUBSURFACE MINING:
Self-supported;
- Room and pillar mining;
- Stop and pillar mining;
- Shrinkage stopping;
- Sublevel stopping;
- Vertical crater retreated mining;
Supported mining;
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- Sut and fill stopping,
- Stull stopping,
Caving method;
- Long wall mining;
- Mublevel caving;
- Block caving;
Novel mining
- Rapid excavation;
- Hydraulic mining;
- Methane drainage;
- Subsurface gasification, etc
- deplete high-grade shallow minerals,
- deplete deeper low-grade deposits;
- interdisciplinary approach in planning and in decision making;
- develop methods that ensure environmental values are considered in the
decision making process.
5.2.1 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE MINING
Change in quantity and quality of water, Water consumption effect;
Potential impact on aquifer;
Groundwater inflow expected into the mine,
Drying of wetlands and, streams, lakes, ponds and springs;
Surface water quality change;
Dams, embankments and impoundments,
Surface and ground water flow pattern change;
Change on current surface water use;
Change on horizontal extent of water table;
Change on aquifer recharge and storage characteristics;
Location of waste, refuse ore and removed overburden;
Location of the various mining operations;
17
Blasting;
Spreading dust;
Noise effects;
Major change on the economic activities and source of employment;
Social effects (relocation of population, cultural change, impact of mining on human
health, living conditions and well being, change in population size, availability of
services, employment, business possibilities, conflicts among the population);
Production of surface spoil heaps with sedimentation and acidification of water courses
alteration of water quality of large area;
Loss of agricultural productivity caused by change on the flora and fauna distribution
and natural diversity due to subsidence. Surface subsidence takes place if mining is
subsurface;
Devastates fish and aquatic habitat,
Erosion and sedimentation;
Noise; vibration and blast effect,
High temperature;
Air pollution from dust, emissions,
Limited light for the miners;
Change on landscape;
Surface soil texture disturbance and stripping of soil;
Chemicalization of the environment by toxic pollutants such as
Acid mine drainage from active mines;
Acid drainage from abandoned mine;
Acid runoff;
Toxic heavy metals;
Chemical agents;
The mitigation measures are similar to the surface mining impacts, but in this type of
mining securing and sealing of openings are important
Surface cover and capping of openings
Backfilling
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Shaft and adit plugs
6 HYDROCARBONS (PETROLEUM AND COAL) AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Every hour nearly 1000,000 tons of fossil fuel burns allover the world. When the fossil fuel
burn they produce poisonous gases and pollute vast areas. 88% of the worlds commercial
energy is produced from the non-renewable fossil fuel resources. Coal covers 28%, Oil 38%
and natural gas 21% respectively. USA uses 12 ton coal equivalent per capital (TCE),
Europe uses 5TCE per capital, developing countries use 0.5TCE per capital. But everyone is
paying the cost of global environmental problem equally.
Exploration for petroleum in Ethiopia has been undergoing since 1920. Only small amount
of condensate was discovered in 1971 in the Ogaden Basin. Exploration for coal is also
progressing in southwest. Several hundred million tons of lignite rank coal and oil shale
reserve have been proven so far in many pats of the country. According to the study of the
World Bank (1983) petroleum energy consumption of Ethiopia is 6.5% of the total annual
energy consumption.
6.1 GROUPS OF FOSSIL FUELS
Fossil fuels are classified as:
Coal (peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite);
Oil;
Natural gas;
Oil shale (not used in Ethiopia at the moment).
6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF FOSSIL FUELS
Impact during exploration (Ref. previous sections);
Impact during development (Ref. previous sections);
Impacts during use of fossil fuels;
Land subsidence;
6.2.1 IMPACTS OF COAL MINE ON ENVIRONMENT
The effects of coal mines include:
Landscape disruption on surface,
Disturbance of land,
Removing vegetation,
Moving overburden,
Removal of coal
Erosion of soil,
Dust pollution,
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Acid mine drainage,
Contamination of drinking water,
Disruption of growth and reproduction of aquatic plants and animals,
and
Corrosion of bridges
Subsidence of surface if subsurface mine collapses,
Accumulations of waste heaps,
Health problems due to smoke, soot, SO2, release of trace elements, and compounds of
C, N, S;
Dust due to loading and unloading;
6.2.2 IMPACTS OF COAL UTILIZATION
Environmental impact of coal utilization includes:
Combustion related air pollution,
carbon dioxide from combustion,
Nitrous oxide,
Methane
Respiratory related problems due to dust, SOx, NOx, suspended particles, O3,
CO3, Hg, Se, F, B, Cr, V;
Coal greenhouse gas,
Waste disposal,
Disposal of fly ash and residues;
Table 1 Summary of impacts of coal mine and use of coal on the environment
Source of impact Primary exposure Possible health impact
Subsurface
mining
Dust, noise, diesel exhaust,
(SO2, CO, CO2, H2SO4)
Pneumoconiosis, hearing loss,
cancer, respiratory irritation.
Surface mining Acid mine drainage, heavy
metals (Pb, Cd, As), increase
in pH
Cancer, Cardiovascular disease,
etc.
Cleaning and
preparation of
coal
Dust, trace elements (Cd,
Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Ni, Pb, Zn,
As, Mn, Se,) SO2, Organics
Cancer (respiratory, nasal,
dermatitis, etc)
Transportation of Dust, water contamination Respiratory irritation
20
coal
Combustion Air emission, fly ash, residue The above mentioned disease
and loss of resistance to
infection.
6.2.3 Mitigation of coal impacts
Reduce emission by using best technology currently available,
Use electric power for zero emission,
Develop new emission control technology,
Reduce dust by early vegetation,
6.2.4 IMPACTS OF OIL AND GAS ON ENVIRONMENT
Oil and gas are produced from very expensive deep wells. After produced from the wells
the oil passes through many stages of distillation and refining process before it is used. In
addition to the use of petroleum as source of fuel they are used as raw materials for petro-
chemical industries. Oil spills and leakage on land can contaminate soil and subsurface
water while evaporation of oil products and incomplete burning of oil fuels result in air
pollution. In cities and towns oils and lubricants pollution of rivers and subsurface water
takes place from fuel stations and garages. The soluble hydrocarbons that enter water
system are benzene, toluene, ethyl-benzene, etc.
Impacts of oil are:
Organic contamination of drinking water;
Cause cancer in human and animals,
Liver damage,
Impairment of cardiovascular function,
Depression of nervous system,
Brain disorder, etc.
Release of CO2 and H2O from oil combustion,
CO2 can cause global warming
6.2.5 MITIGATION OF THE OIL FUEL IMPACTS:
Use of alternative energy source;
Geothermal,
21
Solar,
Wind,
Hydrothermal, etc.
Maximize use of fresh water based drilling mud,
Recycle drilling mud,
Store crude oil in thanks,
Minimize and control leakage from thanks and pipelines, fuel stations to halt spill and
leakage of oil;
Develop system of handling used (old) engine oils and lubricants from garages;
Improve in the fuel combustion efficiency of vehicles
Improving both design and mode of fuel use, such as compression ratio,
turbocharger, decreasing the mass of the vehicles, rolling resistance of
vehicles, regular servicing, etc
Fuel supplies should be stored above high water level
If oil is spilled on land it should not be removed or buried. Attempts to do so can create
more problem; the area affected can be
Fenced to protect wild life;
Introduce petroleum consuming local soil bacteria
Stream crossing should be designed so that flow is not affected, causing deposition of
sediments;
Oil, drilling fluids, garbage, and other contaminants should not be dumped in lakes and
streams;
Cutting of line and stripping of vegetation should be minimized,
If there is a possibility of contaminating drinking water wells, it may be advisable to
grout all exploration holes.
Test pits, trenches, and other excavations should be filled in after use.
After/during production of petroleum, reservoirs should be injected with water and gas
(air, such as nitrogen) to overcome surface subsidence
7 SMELTING (RECOVERING OF METALS), REFINING, AND MARKETING
Activities: Processing of mineral concentrates by heat or electro-chemical.
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Environmental issues:
Sulfur dioxide emission contribute to acid rain,
Toxic chemicals,
High energy requirements,
7.1 MITIGATION OF ACID DRAINAGE FROM MINE AND SMELTING SITES
In the case of precious metal heap leach operation cyanide neutralization of acid mine
drainage takes place by:
Natural degradation and detoxification;
Covers and seals for exclusion of oxygen,
Pilling of tailing under water for exclusion of oxygen,
Cover and seal of tailings to reduce water infiltration,
High UV level and strong winds for nine months would make natural degradation of
cyanide;
Rinsing with barren solutions (clean water)to clean the entire heap reduces the
concentration of cyanide;
Biological treatment for destruction of cyanide
Using of bacteria proven to oxidize cyanide
Chemical treatment
Acid leachate collected in ponds neutralized with lime;
Sulfur dioxide and air oxidation method (added in conjunction with lime and
copper catalyst);
Alkaline chlorination (either chlorine gas or calcium hypochlorite are used in the
oxidation process);
Hydrogen peroxide oxidation (clean, but expensive)
Ferrous sulfate (chemical distraction of cyanide);
Clean up of mine sites;
Accurate prediction of site water balance
Discharge
Evaporation
And process requirement
Abandoned mine land reclamation;
The cover should be graded and compacted to minimize infiltration,
23
Accurate prediction of geochemical behavior of waste rock, tailing, ore heaps, open pit,
or subsurface workings when exposed to an oxidizing environment,
Adequate physical and geochemical stablization of mine waste materials
Adequate environmental and operational monitoring to identify charges in initial design
assumptions,
Control on disposal of mining and beneficiation waste;
All process fluids should be detoxified and evaporated from the site,
Control airborne toxic substances.
8 MINE CLOSURE AND DECOMMISSIONING
All mines will eventually close when the mines stops operating due to economic conditions.
When a mine permanently stops appropriate mine closure should take place. The issues are
waste rock landforms, process plant site, road/hardstands, infrastructure areas, open pits,
etc..
8.1 IMPACTS OF IMPROPERLY CLOSED MINES
Void collapse:
Subsurface subsidence
Slumping of tailing and waste rock pile
Wall failure,
Erosion and structural instability
Acid rock drainage
External and internal instability,
Acide soil,
Gas emissions,
Adverse groundwater and surface water quality
Public safety
Human injury or death
8.1.1 MITIGATION
Backfill upper level of voids with waste rocks,
Profiling,
Ripping, and surface cover to prevent wind erosion,
24
Drainage control,
Capping tailings and waste rock with 1 m thick material
Integrate subsidence, land form and river diversion
Treat and replace acid water, introduce sulfides reducing bacteria, segregate known
aquifers
Environmental protection,
Subsurface mine openings are sealed,
Surface facilities are removed,
Demolish plants, equipments
Surface mines and the subsurface areas of subsurface mines are reclaimed.
Secure pits, dumps,, impoundments, etc.
Protect and clean up of ground water,
Protect from acid rock drainage,
Rehabilitate and re-vegetate
Disposal of assets,
Social mitigation, mine closure means a sharp drop in the standard of living for the
local community and the region, tax revenue falls as demand for services increase
Mitigating impacts on employees, the community and others whose jobs depend on
mining, and a local government,
Retraining for other job,
Ensure food security and service delivery,
Protecting the most vulnerable,
Subsurface mine openings are sealed,
Surface facilities are removed,
Surface mines and the subsurface areas of subsurface mines are reclaimed.
Only after these activities are completed can the mining company abandon the site.. Even
after the mine is abandoned post mining liabilities rest with the mining company
The objectives of successful mine closure are to provide long-term protection to surface
and groundwater resources, establish a stable physical setting, return the site to pre-mining
or other land use, and develop a low-maintenance situation for the mining company. A
period of post-closure monitoring is typically required.
8.1.2 Mitigation of mine site impacts
25
Mine closure sites environmental problems can be mitigated by:
Restricting the mobility of constituents in heaps and impoundments,
Sealing and rehabilitation of open pits and quarries,
Eliminate any danger to the health and safety of the public,
Backfill material selected must be free of acid / toxic forming and combustible
materials
Reduction of constituents in solution,
Rinsing/treatment of tailings,
Water balance,
Determine if a hydraulic head will be placed on the mine seal after closure,
Control the movement of subsurface water or hydrologic communication,
Mine facility removal
Demolition of existing structures,
Debris removal,
Debris disposal,
Waste disposal areas,
Utilities and roadways,
Drainage facilities,
Removal of hazardous materials,
Percolation of solution through heaps, and
Acid generation from tailings and waste rocks, tailing impoundment,
Control tailing erosion, slope failure, weathering, drainage disruption,
Establish erosion resistant cover of vegetation soil, riprap or water cover,
Appropriate site selection and dam design,
Implement permanent control measures,
Most mines are required to post a reclamation performance bond that is to be used by a
regulatory agency to reclaim an area in the event of forfeiture. The setting of rehabilitation
bonds serves the purpose of reducing the risk of failure of the lease holder to the
government to meet the environment management commitments. Several methods are
introduced.
Irrevocable Letter of Credit – an agreement between the company and the bank
where by bank will provide cash funds to the authorities if the company defaults;
26
Performance Bond – a surety bond issued by an insurance company in which the
insurer is responsible for all claims up to an agreed limit;
Trust Fund – a fund that operates in a similar fashion to a pension fund with regular
contributions being invested by a fund manager,
Insurance policy- a special form of performance bond,
Parent _Company Guarantee-the parent company guarantees to indemnify the
Government in the events of a company default,
Pledging of Assets-the company assets are pledged to the Government.
The above methods of rehabilitation bonds arrangement are taken from the experiences
of Queensland state of Australia.
8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES DURING DECOMMISSIONING
The following factors are important when considering decommissioning a mine.
Public safety hazardous and risk,
Ecological compatibility,
Potential as on going source of pollution,
Community expectation,
Future land use and resource demands,
Aesthetics
Seepage of toxic solutions into ground and surface water contamination from acid
mine drainage,
Wildlife and fisheries habitat loss,
Re-vegetation failure,
Wind borne dust,
Slope and tailings impoundment failure,
8.3 ACTIVITIES (MITIGATION):
Demolition or disposal of structures and buildings,
Removal of foundations and debris,
Ongoing seepage control,
Long term stability of waste rock disposal area against water and wind erosion,
A conformational geochemical evaluation determined no potential impact to ground
water from infiltration of precipitation through the waste rock disposal area
Re-contouring of pit walls, and waste dumps,
27
Covering of reactive tailings dumps,
Decommissioning of roads,
Dismantling of buildings,
Re-seeding/planting of disturbed areas,
Monitoring and possible water quality treatment.
Rehabilitation measures
Sealing of subsurface workings and rehabilitation of dangerous excavations,
Prevent inadvertent access, and permanently seal openings
Surface stabilization and re-contouring,
Underground stabilization,
Control reactions
Control migration of elements and water,
Permanently plug workings and drill-holes to control migration,
Collect and treat acid mine drainage,
8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AFTER CLOSURE
Monitoring is carried out for physical stability, chemical stability, and for environmental
impact. The purpose of post-closure monitoring is to evaluate the success of closure
activities, to map out the actual environmental impact and the resulting changes in the
environmental conditions in the impact area of a project. After reclaiming a mine site, there
will probably be several years of maintenance activity required. This will include periodic
inspection of the site to verify that the reclamation is effective. Areas need monitoring are
shaft, adits, plugs, slopes, covers, dams, ditches, etc. The impacts are:
Access disturbance,
Surface slumps,
Erosion,
Acid generation and leaching of metals,
Waste rock land forms
Erosion
Dust
Tailings storage problems
Seepage
Erosion
28
Process plant sites
Infrastructural areas
Underground workings
Subsidence,
Shaft vent capping
Open pit
Pit wall stability
pit water quality
Adjacent band down stream areas
Dust
Surface water quality
Potential Monitoring Activities (methods) include:
Visual inspection
Inspect ditches, berms, fences, signals,
Look for cracks, scraps, change in drainage patterns,
Displacement and settlement,
Seepage,
Flow rate of leakage,
Alluvial fans,
Piezometers,
Debris and blockages,
Sampling of down stream surface and groundwater drainage
Verification that mine seals are effective,
Cleaning out of sediments and erosion control structures, primary ponds and ditches,
Verification that the water discharges are within the permited effluent limited,
Regarding and reseeding of areas, as required,
The quality of surface and groundwater,
The level of groundwater, the quality of process water led into the waterways;
and
The spreading of dust.
29
8.4 MONITORING MEASURES
Visual inspection,
Analysis of sediment loading in runoff,
Monitoring bore,
Water sample analysis, etc
9 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF MINES CLOSURE ON LOCAL COMMUNITY
Socioeconomic impacts need to clarify the type, duration, spatial, extent and distribution of
the impact. This incorporates: direct verses indirect impacts, period of time (exploration to
closure and beyond) the boundaries of the impact zone, and the affected group.
Exploration is first and the least intrusive. It involves a small work force for limited
period of time,
The period of mine development and of plants for associated surface activities is the
most disruptive event. It lasts for a few years, but can involve the largest number of
people. Work force is transient in character,
The period of mine and plant operation is the longest, often two decades or more. It
usually provides the greatest economic rewards to the community,
The final stage is abandonment. This is negative event on both economic and social
counts,
A large temporary increase in local employment increases local demand in housing
and all types of public services,
The groups of workers will change throughout the period, because the type of
workers needed shifts as development progresses,
Retail and service establishments increase,
Increase of local wage, cost of housing and property taxes,
Overload roads, schools, public and private services,
Mine closing can impact community who were providing goods and services to the
mine,
Abandonment of mine may leave population stranded without sufficient economic
activities and can create ghost towns and villages.
The demography and settlement patterns including potential changes due to
relocation and migration,
The land use systems and natural resource utilization and the possible impact,
The cultural and social impacts, including business development, mine-related
payments, social disruptive influences and law and order,
The health and nutrition status of the population and adequacy of health facilities
and the potential for mine related change,
30
The education facilities and services, employment and income level of the people in
the immediate area of the project,
The existing transport, power, water, sewage, waste disposal, police, etc. services
and the impact of the project on these services,
Compensation for project related environmental impacts and social disruptive,
Family split
9.1 MITIGATION
Unemployment compensation,
Retraining for other jobs,
Relocation and enticements for new businesses to locate locally.
9.2 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IMPACTS
If environmental stress exceeds human tolerance level for prolonged periods of time,
Feeling of discomfort will arise,
Alertness will decrease,
Accident will occur,
Performance and productivity will drop.
The main sources of impacts are:
Poor handling of chemicals,
Fugitive emission within the plant from transport, blasting, and combustion,
Exposure to asbestos, cyanide, mercury or other toxic materials,
Exposure to heat, noise, vibration,
Mine fire, Heat strokes
Physical risk at the plant or at the site,
Threats to a miner’s safety may arise from:
Fall of roof, face, rib or side of a mine pit,
Haulage or other machinery accident,
Electrical equipments;
Explosives, or ignition or explosion of gas and dust;
Sudden inundation of water and gas;
Injuries and lose of life through suffocation;
Dust inhalation,
31
Disease such as silicosis, asbestosis and pneumoconiosis,
9.3 MITIGATION OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IMPACT
Dust control,
Use water for dust suppression
Apply exhaust ventilation
Dust filtration techniques
Control of noise and vibration
Use slower running equipments
Improve maintenance,
Replacing compressed air equipments by electrical devices,
Use air silencer, resilient mountings,
Establishment of policies and priorities to initiate safety programs
Provision of education and training;
Choice of personnel for specific job;
Commit resources;
Pro-active safety system ,
Provide leadership in safety.
9.4 GENDER DIMENSION OF MINING
Women are largely absent from the technical aspects of large scale mining operations for legal reasons such as the
International Labor Organization( ILO) convention 45 (Ref. Third World Network Africa, 2001), and women’s
limited capacity to manage gangs of men, risk involved in the sector, hostility and chauvinism from their male
counterparts in the field, limitation of women to invest in mining, and traditional reasons. In large scale mining
women are limited to legal, public relations and catering and financial work. The participation of women in
artisanal mining is higher in comparison to man. In Ethiopian there is no large scale mining and segregation of
women from men in mining operation at the moment. The artisanal mining for gold in most of the regions in
Ethiopia is managed by women and children.
However, it is important to recognize the potential social impact of mining operations on women and children. In
countries that have large scale mining, the people's ancestral land and natural resources have been plundered, and
the environment and indigenous culture eroded drastically as the long-term effects of large-scale mining take their
toll.
9.4.1 IMPACTS OF MINING ON WOMEN:
The effects of large-scale mining on women include the following:
Deprivation of ancestral land rights,
32
Loss of farm land;
Loss of traditional livelihood and impairment of the productive role of women,
The workload of women increases at home as men work in a cash economy created by mining operations
and women have increased responsibility for the household and food provision through traditional means;
Women suffer from an increased risk of HIV/AIDS and other STD infections, family violence, rape and
prostitution often fuelled by alcohol abuse and/or a transient male workforce;
Exposed to sexual exploitation,
Cultural impacts on women and children,
Ecological destruction,
Mining industry is conducive to HIV/AIDS transmission, increases sexually transmitted disease, spread of
communicable from migrant and transient miners; sexual harassment and increased incidences of violence
against woman in local communities by transient male mine workers,
Pressure on housing in time of rush for mining and other social service;
Water pollution from the mine;
Introduction of alcoholism (development of bars, sex shops) and drugs
Migration of husband to work as miner; it can end up on divorce
Inflation on the local economy;
Unfilled pits pose threat to women searching for fuel wood;
Limitation of access to herbs, traditional spices, plant materials for soap or
cosmetics, edible mushrooms that women use for their family.
9.4.1 MITIGATION
Gender awareness requires gender sensitive attitudes, a commitment to placing both women's and men's needs and
priorities at the centre of development work, analysing the impact of projects on women and men, and designing
projects that involve both women and men. It requires knowledge about the impact that development activities will
have on both women and men, which must involve an understanding of women's and men's social and economic
relations and experiences. control of resources, meeting practical gender needs does not necessarily challenge
existing gender norms. Practical gender needs, gender sensitivity gender analysis, empowerment, gender
mainstreaming, strategic gender interests–involve bringing about equality between men and women. They
transform gender relations by challenging women's disadvantaged position or lower status. Meeting strategic
gender interests involves working with men as well as women to change assumptions about women's role and place
in society. If these were met, the existing relationship of unequal power between women and men would be
transformed.
10 NVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
To minimize the impacts due to any mine activities on environment, preparation of environmental planning is
necessary. The environmental plan should include:
Erosion and sediment control plan,
Capacity of the structures,
Operations and maintenance of these structures,
Method of sediment retrieval,
Nature and location of sediment disposal facilities,
Wind erosion,
Water erosion,
Schedule of operations,
Mine development rock, ore and concentrate management,
Type of ore and rock that will be removed
The tonnage that will be removed,
33
The tonnage of tailing that will be placed on surface,
The backfill methods,
The slope, the face, and the pit wall stability,
Access and haulage routes
Safety and security plans for workers and public,
Tailing disposal and impoundment plane,
The area to be covered by waste piles
Site preparation plane,
Total height of each pile plane,
The original topography,
Tailing disposal methods,
Chemical characteristics of the tailings,
Acid generation potential of the tailings
The generation controls necessary for acid drainage,
Water management and treatment plane
Ongoing monitoring plane,
All impacts to be monitored,
Monitoring frequency,
Location of monitoring points,
Ongoing rehabilitation/ reclamation plan
Original topography plan
Superficial and bed rock geology
Plan of areas to be covered
Total height of each pile or dam
Material types, their physical and chemical properties,
Seepage control plan
Sewage sludge disposal plan
Chemicals and fuel storage and handling,
Buildings and infrastructure plan,
Nature and location of all structures,
Construction materials used,
Solid waste disposal pla,ne,
Work place air quality monitoring plan
Hazardous material handling plane,
Safety plane,
Resettlement plan for displaced people,
Mine closure planning,
Cost estimation and time line
Final land forms and configuration
Identifies and addresses risks and uncertainty
Defines implementation and post closure monitoring arrangements
Post-closure monitoring plan,
Surveillance, monitoring and auditing
Rehabilitation plan,
Physical stability plan,
Materials and structures remaining on site after operations have ceased
Chemical stability plan,
Acid mine drainage
Leaching of materials,
Measures for the control of chemical reactions and the treatment and control of drainage,
Human safety plan,
Future land use
11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Mining designers must consider the effects of mine on its surroundings. Engineering
alternatives have to be judged according to their environmental influence. After a plan is
adopted , the effects on the environment should be monitored.
34
In the early stages of a mining venture maintaining environmental quality is usually
inexpensive. However, stacking, line cutting, geophysical surveying and drilling are done
by contractors who may not be concerned with protecting the developers image.
When decision is made to bring an ore body into production, the local ecology along with
social and economic conditions should be studied. This provides base line data against
which to measure the effect of mining. Monitoring of the effect of mining include: physical
aspects such as depth, temperature, sediment texture, water characteristics such as colour,
terbidity, dissolved solids and organic content, toxicants such as heavy metals and
detergents, biota such as phytoplankton, concentration, plants, fish and bacteria.
Plant operation will affect the local economy and population distribution and will constitute
a new land use. Local road and the community water may be significantly affected.
The problem of acid contamination from mines and waste arises from the presence of
pyrite, pyrrhotite and chalcocite. Production of acide can be prevented by excluding any
one of oxygen, water or sulphides
The cost of antipollution program may be minimized by determining water quality before
operation start. This will prevent having to fulfill subsequent quality requirements that
exceed the natural conditions.
Recycling of water may be possible, thereby reducing fresh water requirements. This could
reduce the volume of water to be treated.
Reclamation requires establishing objectives for ultimate use of the site. Blasts should be
designed to avoid damaging vibration.
Government, mining companies and communities should as a minimum recognize
environmental management as a high priority, notably during the licensing process and
through the development and implementation of environmental management system.
These should include commitment to:
Early and comprehensive environmental impact assessment,
Pollution control and other preventive and mitigation measures,
Monitoring and auditing activities, and emergency response measures.
Establish environmental accountability in industry and Government at the highest
management and policy-making level,
Encourage employee at all level to recognize their responsibility for environmental
management and ensure that adequate resources, staff, and requisite training is
available to implement environmental plans,
Ensure the participation and dialogue with the affected community and other directly
interested parties on environmental aspects of all phases of mining activities,
Adopt environmentally sound technology in all phases of mining activities and
increase the emphasis on the transfer of appropriate technologies which mitigate
environmental impacts including those from small scale mining operations,
Adopt risk analysis and risk management in the development of regulation and in the
design, preparation, and decommissioning of mining activities, including the handling
and disposal of hazardous mining and other wastes,
35
Avoid the use of such environmental regulations that act as unnecessary barrier to
trade and investment,
Recognize the linkage between ecology, socio-cultural conditions and human health
and safety, both within the workplace and the natural environment,
Continuous improvement in environment performance,
APPENDICES
Appendix 1 AIR, WATER AND SOIL QUALITY STANDARDS
A, Air Quality Standards: Discharges to Air (Source: Ministry of Environment, British Columbia,
Canada. 1989).
Parameter Maximum discharge (parts per
billion)
Sulpher Dioxide
Annual arithmetic Mean
24 hour concentration
3 hour concentration
1 hour concentration
75.00
260.00
665.00
900.00
Antimony (Sb)
Arsenic (As)
Beryllium (Be)
Cadmium(Cd)
Chromium (Cr)
Copper(Cu)
Fluorine(F)
Lead (Pb)
Mercury (Hg)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Nickel (Ni)
Selenium (Se)
Uranium (U)
Vanadium (V)
Zinc (Zn)
0.50
1.00
0.1
0.30
0.10
2.50
2.00
2.50
1.00
2.50
0.10
0.50
6.00
1.00
2.50
B Soil Quality criteria ( Tentative Netherlands Soil Quality Criteria)
Soil quality criteria
Concentration (mg/kg dry weight)
Parameter A* B* C*
Arsenic (As)
Beryllium (Be)
Cadmium(Cd)
Chromium (Cr)
cobalt
Copper(Cu)
Lead (Pb)
Mercury (Hg)
Molybdenum
(Mo)
Nickel (Ni)
Tin
Zinc
20
200
1
100
20
50
50
0.5
10
50
20
200
30
400
5
250
50
100
150
2
40
100
50
500
50
2000
20
800
300
500
600
10
200
500
300
3000
A* Reference value for good soil.
B* Limiting value for soil quality having potential for harmful effects on human health or the
environment and requiring further investigation.
36
C* Limiting value for heavily polluted soil requiring remedial investigations and clean up.
Source guideline for soil clean up – Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Planning and
Environment, Soil, Water and Chemical substance Department, The Hague, Netherlands,
1983.
C Tentative Netherlands Ground and Surface Water Quality Criteria
Parameter Ground and surface water quality criteria
Concentration (mg/L)
A* B* C*
Arsenic (As)
Beryllium (Be)
Cadmium(Cd)
Chromium (Cr)
cobalt
Copper(Cu)
Lead (Pb)
Mercury (Hg)
Molybdenum
(Mo)
Nickel (Ni)
Tin
Zinc
10
50
1
20
20
20
20
0.2
5
20
10
50
30
100
2.5
50
50
50
50
0.5
20
50
30
200
100
500
10
200
200
200
200
2
100
200
150
800
D UK Environment Agency Environmental Quality Standards for Water
Parameters Environmental quality standards(parts per billion
for the elements)
PH
Arsenic (As)
Cadmium
Copper(Cu)
Iron
Nickel (Ni)
Zinc
6-9
50
1
28
1000
200
500
APPENDIX 2 SUGGESTED TABLE OF CONTENT FOR MINING STAGE EIA
STUDY REPORT
1 Background information and project objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Status of the project site
1.3 Ownership structure
1.4 Project objectives
1.5 Environmental impact assessment objectives
1.6 Legislative requirements
1.7 Analysis of need for the project
1.7.1 Corporate need
1.7.2 Export prospect
37
1.7.3 National benefit
2 Geology
2.1 Previous exploration and mining
2.2 Geological setting
2.3 Overburden/ inter-burden
2.4 Structures
2.5 Ore resource
2.6 Ore reserves
3 Project description
3.1 project concept
3.1.1 outline
3.1.2 site constraint
3.1.3 work practice implication
3.2 Production rates
3.3 Projected product sales
3.4 Overburden and inter-burden removal
3.5 The mining plan
3.6 geo-technical considerations
3.7 Transport
3.7.1 Ore, waste, concentrate
3.7.2 Chemical
3.8 Infrastructure
3.8.1 Construction facilities
3.8.2 Site access
3.8.3 Site development and earthwork
3.8.4 Site facilities
3.8.5 Power
3.8.6 Fuel storage
38
3.8.7 Maintenance and repair workshops
3.8.7.1 Laboratories
3.8.7.2 Temporary accommodation
3.9 Service activities
3.9.1 sewage and garbage disposal
3.9.2 chemical storage and handling
3.9.3 weed and pest control
3.9.4 medical service
3.10 Workforce
3.11 Workforce transport
3.11.1construction phase
3.11.2Operational phase
3.12 Energy
3.13 Alternatives
3.13.1No development option
4 Ore handling, preparation, and product transportation
4.1 Ore handling
4.2 Mineral preparation
Plant capacity
Ore handling and storage
Processing plant capacity
Product handling capacity
Rejects handling capacity
Train/truck loading capacity
4.2.2 Design basis and overall concept
4.2.3 Plant description
4.3 Product transportation
4.3.1 Reclaim and train/truck loading
39
4.4 Alternatives
4.4.1 Sitting of processing plant
4.4.2 Ore handling technology
5 Water Management
5.1Water management strategy
5.2Available water resources
5.2.1 Surface water
5.2.2 Groundwater
Site water source
Local, regional and national significance of water resources
Water consumption requirements
5.2.3 Nature of water requirements
5.2.4 Processing plant
5.2.5 Dust suppression
5.2.6 Bathhouse and industrial use
5.3Water control system
5.3.1 Water management control strategy
5.3.2 Water control network
5.4Performance under varying conditions
5.4.1 Extreme flow rate
5.4.2 Normal flow rates
5.5Water balance modeling
5.5.1 Methodology
5.5.2 Model inputs
5.5.3 Results
5.6Alternatives
5.7Hydrological and geochemical considerations
5.7.1 Hydrological considerations
40
5.7.2 Geochemical considerations
6 Rehabilitation
6.1 legal requirements
6.2 post-mining land use
6.2.1 alternatives
6.2.2 prefered post mining land use
6.3 Land form design
6.4 Revegetation procedure
7 Existing environmental and environmental impact assessment
7.1 Physiography
7.2 Soil
7.2.1 soil survey
7.2.2 soil p[rofile description
7.2.3 suitability of soils for stripping, stockpiling and topdressing
7.2.4 erosion status
7.2.5 environmental management of soils
7.2.6 Hydrology and water quality
7.2.7 Hydrologic history, flood level,
7.2.8 Surface water usage, water quality, monitoring program
7.2.9 Groundwater: aquifer characteristics, registerd groundwater bores
7.2.10Long and short-term impact assessments-hydrology and water quality
7.3 Climate and air quality
7.4 Acoustics
7.4.1 Major noise source from the project
7.4.2 Noise impact assessment
7.4.3 Nois mitigation
7.4.4 Blasting
7.5 Vegetation
7.5.1 Inventory of vegetation species
41
7.5.2 Open woodland and wholly cleared land
7.5.3 Vegetation along water ways
Population
Density
Valued population of species
7.6 Fauna
7.6.1 inventory of species
population
migratory characteristics
habitat
endangered, rare or threatened species
7.7 Historical background
Local history
Anthropology
Archaeology
7.8 Land use, capability, tenure and zoning
7.8.1 Land use
Traditional land use pattern
Cropping
Horticultural
Dairy farming
Drayland grazing
Urban land use
Agricultural trends
7.8.2 Rural land capability
7.8.3 Land tenure and zoning
7.9 Aesthetics
7.9.1 Existing landscape characteristics
42
7.9.2 Impact assessment-aesthetics
7.10 Transport
7.10.1Road network
7.10.2Impact assessment
7.11 Employment characteristics
7.11.1Effect of proposed development on employment
7.11.2Demographic characteristics
7.11.3Impact of the proposal on population
7.11.4Impact assessment-socio-economics
7.12 Housing and community services
7.12.1community service and facilities
sewage, water supply and garbage disposal
7.13.4health services
7.13.5community infrastructure
7.13.6vector control
7.13.7impact assessment-housing and community services
8 Environmental monitoring program
8.1 Air quality
8.2 Water quality
8.3 Geochemical
8.4 Noise and vibration
8.5 Rehabilitation
9 Project team and references
10 Appendices and figure
APPENDIX 3 CHECK LIST OF MINERAL AND PETROLEUM OPERATION
AND MINERAL PROCESSING
The EIA study should be checked if it fulfils one or more of the criteria set
out below.
43
1 Legal compliance:
A, Has the proposed project met the requirements of the mining, and petroleum
operation laws and environmental policy and laws of Ethiopia?
B, Provide lists of all permits existing, and current status of each permit
C, Were any citizen protest or comments filed
D, What is the status of the bond (not for exploration)
E, has the mine had a permit to use explosives
2 Phase of operation
A, Is the project in exploration, development, mining or smelting stage of operation?
B Was base line data survey conducted?
3 Will the project cause
a, substantial pollution problem on soil, surface water, groundwater?
b, create substantial waste disposal problem?
C, accident for the local population and the workers
D, affect areas which support animal and plant life or areas with particularly vulnerable
ecosystems?
E, lead to major change in the landscape?
F, Affect areas with historical/ cultural remains/aesthetic or scientific value
G, Change the way of life of the local population
H, Obstruct, or lead to substantial changes in the local population the exploitation or
use of natural resources other than those directly affected by the project?
I, Groundwater change?
J, Down stream water quality and water supply volume change?
4 Will the infrastructure development cause:
a, Soil erosion/silt runoff?
B, dust/noise/vibration/quarry hazard (blasting and hauling)?
5 Will the project require significant volumes of:
A, Local material?
B, Water or energy?
6 Socio-economic conditions
44
A Resettlement or compensation of local people?
B Will the size of affected population be significant?
C Will the project cause health problem?
D Will the Project cause existing land use change?
7 Will the project cause subsidence?
A, Does the mine include pillar removed mining?
C, Has there ever been any complaint by surface owner about surface subsidence?
D, Does the mine have any injection wells or pump any fluids or other material of any
type subsurface?
8 Waste disposal
A Does the pile have any public roads, homes or occupied dwellings, etc. down stream
that could be affected by failure
9 Impoundments and dams
10 Backfilling and slides
11 Subsurface injections
45
REFERENCES
1 Alistair Duncan, 1994, Environmental legislation and its influence on the mineral
industry, Green Markets for Minerals, Industrial minerals, Park House, Park Terrace,
Worcester Park, Surrey, USA.
2 Anthony M. Evans, 1995, Introduction to mineral exploration, Blackwell Science, PP.
12, 76, 271-2, 330-1,365-6,
3 Beijer Institute Center for Resource Assessment and Management and the Beijer
Institute, 1987, A planning Manual for managing Impacts, P 71-140, Sweden.
4 Carlos D. Da Rossa, J.D., 1997, Golden dreams poisoned streams, Mineral policy
center, Washinton DC.
5 CANMET Report 77-31, Reclamation by vegetation, vol. 1, Mine waste description and
case Histories, Pit slope manual, Energy, Mines and Resources Canada.
6 CANMET Report 77-2, 1997, Environmental Planning, Chapter 10, Mine waste
description and case Histories, Pit slope manual, Energy, Mines and Resources
Canada.
7 Department of Minerals and Energy, Guidelines to help you get environmental
approval for mining projects in western Australia ; Mineral house, east Perth,
Australia Http://www.dme.wagov.au/news/noi..pdf.
8 Environmental Protection Authority, May 2000, Environmental Impact Assessment
Guideline document, final draft report, page 33-36, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
9 European Union, June 1993, Environmental manual, procedures and methodology
governing Lome 1V development co-operation projects, section 12
10 G.Yohannes Habtezgi, 1998, Exploration, Mineral Development, the Environment and
Society in Ethiopia, Country report presented at Third World Network Africa
symposium, Accra, Ghana.
11 NORAD, 1993, Environmental impact assessment of development aid projects, check
lists for intial screening of projects, 4. reprinting, pp. 24
12 Petroleum Operation Department, 1986, Guidelines for Submission of Applications for
Petroleum production Sharing Agreement, Petroleum Operation Department, Ministry
of Mines, Addis Ababa
13 Howard L. Hartman, 1992, SME Mining Engineering Hand book, second edition,
society for mining, metallurgy and exploration, Inc, Littleton, Colorado, USA
14 Jay Wagner, 1998, Oil and gas operations and the changing nature of environmental
law in Latin America, Petroconsultant (U.K) Ltd, London.
15 Confederation of British Industry, 1994, Living with minerals, P 5-23, Published by the
Confederation of British Industry, Center Point, 103 New Oxford Street, UK.
16 Mining and the environment in Ethiopia, 1998, Chemical Society of Ethiopia, ed.
Gizachew Alemayohu (PhD), Proceedings of Workshop, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
46
http://www.dme.wagov.au/news/noi..pdf
17 Swaminathan Research foundation Environmental impact assessment, Chennai,
India.
18 Third World Network Africa, 2001, Mining, Development and Social Conflict in Africa,
Accra North Ghana
19 Jay Paul Wagner, 1998, Oil and gas operations and the changing nature of
environmental law in Latin America., International Bar Association. Journal of Energy
and Natural Resources Law, Vol. 16, No. 2, PP 153-185.
20 United Nations, 1997, Environmental policies, regulations and management practices
in mineral resources development in Asia and the Pacific, P 14-70, New York.
21 United Nations, ET/TCD/20, Environmental Guidelines for Mining Operation, UN
Department of Economic and Social Affairs and Environmental program, Industry and
Environment.
22 William C. Peters, 1987, Exploration and Mining Geology, second edition, John Wiley
& Sons, PP 619 – 625,
23 Konrad B. Krauskopf, 1982, Introduction to Geochemistry, second edition, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, London, PP. 231-257.
24 Patrick A. Domenico and Franklin W. Schwartz, 1990, Physical and chemical
Hydrogeology, John Wiley & Sons, New York, PP. 573-627
25 United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Mines Special publication SP 06A-
94, International land reclamation and drainage conference and third international
conference on the abatement of acidic drainage, volume 1 and 2.
47
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE GUIDELINE
1.2 OVERVIEW OF THE MINING INDUSTRY AND MINES LEGAL
FRAMEWORKS IN ETHIOPIA
The modern mineral exploration commenced in 1867 by Blanfor, British Geologist. Since then the exploration activities were on and off. During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia, exploration for minerals accelerated significantly than ever before. To day the exploration for minerals is progressing with the assistance of modern technology. The establishment of Geological Survey of Ethiopia accelerated further the exploration activities.
However, the discovery of economic mineral deposits were limited to the Adola Gold deposit and other few industrial minerals (soda ash, rock salt, potash, ceramics, etc) and construction materials (cement raw materials, dimension stones such as marble, granite, etc.). At present the mining industry (extraction of minerals) in Ethiopia is not very important in terms of its distribution, size, and its economic contribution.
According to reports released by the Ministry of Mines and other published studies more than 500,000 people are engaged in traditional construction material production and gold mining along several river banks and residue soil developed on primary gold deposits.
Extraction of industrial minerals and rocks and the artisanal mining activities for gold have already been reported to have caused environmental impacts, i.e, human death, erosion of arable land, etc.. The traditional miners at place use mercury, and remove plants which can cause change to the environment due to soil destruction, chemicalization of soil and water.
In the Ethiopian case the environmental problem associated with the traditional mining activities is more sever than in the modern mines which have legal entities. The traditional miners have not fulfilled legal requirements, no control of gold trade, mining planning, safety procedure, no documentation, poor sanitation condition, and no proper medical services. All those problems can cause environmental and social problems.
Digging, creating embankments, clearing shrubs, and trees contribute to the degradation of arable land. Dust produced by crushing, digging, sluicing can cause eye troubles, skin diseases, respiratory infections, and security problem, child labor, child prostitution are also problems associated with artisanal mining.
1.3 POLICY AND LEGAL REQUIREMENTS
The environmental policy, mineral and petroleum operation laws are some of the tools introduced in order to safeguard the environment form impacts related to these area.
1.4 REQUIREMENTS OF THE ETHIOPIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (1997), with regard to the minerals and energy (fossil fuel or petroleum and coal) development and use impact on the environment are spinning around the following points.
Long-term usability of land be safeguarded;
Promote environmental protection, safe mining method and reclamation of abandoned mining area;
Establish a guarantee for the restoration of the land to its previous conditions;
Promote development and sustainable utilization of renewable energy resources;
Reduce use of fossil energy;
Energy conservation;
1.5 CATEGORIES OF THE MINING LICENSES IN ETHIOPIA
The mining proclamation No. 52/1993, part I, article 2(9) has classified the mine licenses for mineral operations into three license ranks:
Prospecting license;
Exploration license, and
Mine for minerals (exploitation) license.
The license for mine for minerals in Ethiopia is subdivided further into:
1. Artisanal mining;
2. Small scale mining; and
3. Large scale mining.
1.6 REQUIREMENTS OF THE MINING AND PETROLEUM OPERATION LAWS
The proclamation No. 52/1993, mentioned above has provided different degree of right to the various licensees to use the natural resources, such as:
Construction minerals and rocks, water and timber is allowed, but is restricted not to use surface water if such use of water results in substantial reduction for other users or if it results in pollution. Dam construction and river diversion also need prior approval by concerned authority;
If displacement of the occupants is required the licensee should negotiate with the occupant for compensation payment or the Government intervenes and settle the dispute between the occupant and licensee;
Construct infrastructure necessary for operations, communications, roads, power, industrial, administrative, residential, medical and other buildings necessary for mining operations is permitted on temporary bases for prospecting, exploration and artisanal mining operators. All construction of permanent nature can be removed by the licensee or abandoned and become Government property;
The Petroleum Operations Proclamation No.295 of 1986 has stated areas precluded from petroleum operations; such as anthropological, archaeological, and historical objects and sites; prevent damage to subsurface formations and ensure petroleum, mud or any other fluids of substance do not waste or escape from the hole to surface,
If the Ministry of Mines thinks that the petroleum operations may endanger persons or property, harm natural resources or the general environment, can order to discontinue the operations. Environmental considerations with regard to the petroleum operations mainly focuses on exploration boreholes and their surroundings. It has not considered the environmental damage that might occur during the pre-drilling exploration activities and during production.
1.7 THE SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)
Local human population,
Local and regional wildlife population,
Local land use and overall ecology,
Change to land and water regimes and land contours,
The disposal of mine waste and tailings, together with other issues such as transportation of product to market all have to be evaluated.
The consequences of mineral, and hydrocarbon resource exploration and development on the environment is enormous and complex. Therefore, EIA study should be conducted by a team composed of:
Subject area expert (environmental geologist),
Pollution control,
Land use,
Socio-economist,
Ecologist, and
Environmental health experts.
Mineral and petroleum operation are projects of many stages. The collection of data for environmental impact assessment for mineral and petroleum operations should be made as part of this process. The environmental impact assessment study in mineral and petroleum operations should be separated into two categories. One is for operation that might terminate in the exploration stage, and the second for operations that might intend to a development and mine minerals and petroleum production. Basic base line data information needed include:
Geological, hydrogeological, botanical, zoological, archaeological, historical, cultural, sociological, and economic,
The existing land use,
The relative abundance, quality and regenerative capacity of natural resources in the area,
The absorption capacity of the natural environment
Trans-boundary impact and complexity,
Provide basic information for assessing any changes,
Set the initial level of element concentrations of surficial materials to be monitored in monitoring programs,
2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND MITIGATION CONSIDERATIONS
The purpose of mitigation is:
Find better way of developing mineral and petroleum resources,
Enhance environmental and social benefits,
Avoid, minimize or remedy adverse impacts,
Ensure that residual impacts are within acceptable limit,
2.1 Exploration
The exploration for minerals has two stages:
2.1.1 SURFACE EXPLORATION
Airborne and ground-based geochemical, and geophysical surveys, line cutting, stripping, and trenching, road/trail building and or helicopter transport, bulk sampling are the main activities of exploration.
2.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:
Environmental impacts of surface exploration are:
2.1.3 MITIGATION OF SURFACE EXPLORATION IMPACT
3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
3.1 THE MAJOR IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
Increase in traffic density;
Disturbance of subsurface formations;
Introduction of drilling fluids, drilling chemicals, surface water and drilling oils to subsurface environment, such as;
Salt saturated fluid,
Oil-based fluid;
Gas-based fluid;
Reagents such a sodium acid pyrophosphate, sodium tetra phosphate, lignite, tannin, low viscosity carbo-xynethyle, etc.
Draining of chemicals used for sample analysis at well site, such as HCl, HNO3, K3Fe(CN)6;
Morphological leveling (alteration) along the access;
Various level aquifer water mixing;
The production of camp waste, used engine oils, shipping garbage;
The risk of accidents (mechanical, electrical, blasting, etc);
Change of the existing land use (if drilling site lays on farm land);
Causing social disorder (change of social structure and customs, displacement);
The excavation of exploratory shafts, Adits or declines,
The digging of test pits and trenches, and the associated removal of material for bulk testing.
The installation of a portable pilot plant or other temporary facility for subsurface ore and rock testing purposes, or any other significant ground disturbance conducted to determine the existence of a commercially exploitable mineral deposit can destroy natural setup of rocks and can trigger artificial discontinuity on the rocks ,
3.1.2 MITIGATION MEASURES FOR IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
4 MITIGATION,COMPENSATION AND REABILITATION COST CONSIDERATIONS
Direct environmental costs
Assessment cost;
Base-line study cost,
Environmental impact analyses and report preparation cost;
Prevention cost, such as tailing dams construction;
Mitigation cost such as gaseous emission control and effluent/discharge control cost;
Closure and reclamation cost;
Waste disposal and contaminant control;
Waste and disposal stabilization,
Backfill of previous mined-out openings;
Compensation cost to affected parties or for irrecoverable damage to the environment;
Indirect environmental cost, such as telephone, electrical, transportation cost,
Management cost such as
Monitoring, stuff salary, training, etc should be taken into consideration during the financial analysis of the project.
4.1 MINE DEVELOPMENT (ESTABLISHMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE)
4.1.1 IMPACTS OF MINE DEVELOPMENT
4.1.2 QUARRIES
4.1.3 Impacts of quarry site
4.1.4 Mitigation
5 MINING (EXTRACTION OF MINERALS) AND MINERAL PROCESSING (SEPARATION OF ORE MINERALS FROM GANGUE),
5.1 MINE CLASSIFICATION
5.1.1 SURFACE MINING:
5.1.2 IMPACT OF SURFACE MINING
5.1.3 Impact of artisanal mining
5.1.4 Mitigation measures of artisanal mining impact
5.1.5 Impact of large scale surface mining
5.1.6 MITIGATION MEASURES OF LARGE SCALE SURFACE MINING IMPACTS
5.2 SUBSURFACE MINING:
5.2.1 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE MINING
6 HYDROCARBONS (PETROLEUM AND COAL) AND THE ENVIRONMENT
6.1 GROUPS OF FOSSIL FUELS
6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF FOSSIL FUELS
6.2.1 IMPACTS OF COAL MINE ON ENVIRONMENT
6.2.2 IMPACTS OF COAL UTILIZATION
6.2.3 Mitigation of coal impacts
6.2.4 IMPACTS OF OIL AND GAS ON ENVIRONMENT
6.2.5 MITIGATION OF THE OIL FUEL IMPACTS:
7 SMELTING (RECOVERING OF METALS), REFINING, AND MARKETING
7.1 MITIGATION OF ACID DRAINAGE FROM MINE AND SMELTING SITES
8 MINE CLOSURE AND DECOMMISSIONING
8.1 IMPACTS OF IMPROPERLY CLOSED MINES
8.1.1 MITIGATION
8.1.2 Mitigation of mine site impacts
8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES DURING DECOMMISSIONING
8.3 ACTIVITIES (MITIGATION):
8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AFTER CLOSURE
8.4 MONITORING MEASURES
9 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF MINES CLOSURE ON LOCAL COMMUNITY
9.1 MITIGATION
9.2 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IMPACTS
9.3 MITIGATION OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IMPACT
9.4 GENDER DIMENSION OF MINING
9.4.1 IMPACTS OF MINING ON WOMEN:
9.4.1 MITIGATION
10 NVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Appendix 1 AIR, WATER AND SOIL QUALITY STANDARDS
APPENDIX 2 SUGGESTED TABLE OF CONTENT FOR MINING STAGE EIA STUDY REPORT
APPENDIX 3 CHECK LIST OF MINERAL AND PETROLEUM OPERATION AND MINERAL PROCESSING
REFERENCES
Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia
Environmental Protection Authority
Environmental Impact Assessment
Guideline
For
Mineral and Petroleum Operation
Projects
NOT FOR CITATION
This guidelines is still under development and shall be binding after
consensus is reached between the Environmental Protection Authority and
the Environmental Units of Competent Sectoral Agencies
December. 2003
Table of Content
1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................................1
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE GUIDELINE................................................................................................................................2
1.2 OVERVIEW OF THE MINING INDUSTRY AND MINES LEGAL.............................................................................2
FRAMEWORKS IN ETHIOPIA................................................................................................................................................2
1.3 POLICY AND LEGAL REQUIREMENTS.......................................................................................................................3
The environmental policy, mineral and petroleum operation laws are some of the tools introduced
in order to safeguard the environment form impacts related to these area...............................................3
1.4 REQUIREMENTS OF THE ETHIOPIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY.......................................................................3
The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (1997), with regard to the minerals and energy (fossil fuel or
petroleum and coal) development and use impact on the environment are spinning around the
following points.....................................................................................................................................................................3
1.5 CATEGORIES OF THE MINING LICENSES IN ETHIOPIA..........................................................................................3
The license for mine for minerals in Ethiopia is subdivided further into:......................................................3
1 .Artisanal mining;..............................................................................................................................................................3
2. Small scale mining; and................................................................................................................................................3
3 .Large scale mining.........................................................................................................................................................3
1.6 REQUIREMENTS OF THE MINING AND PETROLEUM OPERATION LAWS..........................................................3
1.7 THE SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)...........................................................................4
2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND MITIGATION CONSIDERATIONS.............................................................4
2.1 EXPLORATION.......................................................................................................................................................................5
The exploration for minerals has two stages:.............................................................................................................................5
2.1.1 SURFACE EXPLORATION...............................................................................................................................................5
Airborne and ground-based geochemical, and geophysical surveys, line cutting, stripping, and
trenching, road/trail building and or helicopter transport, bulk sampling are the main activities of
exploration..............................................................................................................................................................................5
2.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:.......................................................................................................................................5
Environmental impacts of surface exploration are:..................................................................................................................5
2.1.3 MITIGATION OF SURFACE EXPLORATION IMPACT................................................................................................5
3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION......................................................................................................................................5
3.1 THE MAJOR IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION........................................................................................6
3.1.2 MITIGATION MEASURES FOR IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION.................................................6
4 MITIGATION,COMPENSATION AND REABILITATION COST CONSIDERATIONS.......................................7
4.1 MINE DEVELOPMENT (ESTABLISHMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE).....................................................................7
4.1.1 IMPACTS OF MINE DEVELOPMENT.............................................................................................................................7
4.1.2 QUARRIES........................................................................................................................................................................8
4.1.3 IMPACTS OF QUARRY SITE..................................................................................................................................................8
4.1.4 Mitigation...........................................................................................................................................................................8
5 MINING (EXTRACTION OF MINERALS) AND MINERAL PROCESSING (SEPARATION OF ORE
MINERALS FROM GANGUE),........................................................................................................................................9
5.1 MINE CLASSIFICATION...................................................................................................................................................9
5.1.1 SURFACE MINING:..........................................................................................................................................................9
5.1.2 IMPACT OF SURFACE MINING...................................................................................................................................10
5.1.3 Impact of artisanal mining...............................................................................................................................................10
5.1.4 Mitigation measures of artisanal mining impact.............................................................................................................10
5.1.5 Impact of large scale surface mining...............................................................................................................................10
5.1.6 MITIGATION MEASURES OF LARGE SCALE SURFACE MINING IMPACTS..........................................................11
5.2 SUBSURFACE MINING:................................................................................................................................................12
5.2.1 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE MINING................................................................................13
6 HYDROCARBONS (PETROLEUM AND COAL) AND THE ENVIRONMENT.....................................................14
6.1 GROUPS OF FOSSIL FUELS...........................................................................................................................................14
6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF FOSSIL FUELS......................................................................................................14
6.2.1 IMPACTS OF COAL MINE ON ENVIRONMENT.........................................................................................................14
6.2.2 IMPACTS OF COAL UTILIZATION...............................................................................................................................15
6.2.3 Mitigation of coal impacts...............................................................................................................................................15
6.2.4 IMPACTS OF OIL AND GAS ON ENVIRONMENT.......................................................................................................15
6.2.5 MITIGATION OF THE OIL FUEL IMPACTS:...............................................................................................................16
7 SMELTING (RECOVERING OF METALS), REFINING, AND MARKETING.....................................................16
7.1 MITIGATION OF ACID DRAINAGE FROM MINE AND SMELTING SITES............................................................17
8 MINE CLOSURE AND DECOMMISSIONING............................................................................................................17
8.1 IMPACTS OF IMPROPERLY CLOSED MINES.............................................................................................................18
8.1.1 MITIGATION..................................................................................................................................................................18
8.1.2 Mitigation of mine site impacts........................................................................................................................................19
8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES DURING DECOMMISSIONING....................................................................................20
8.3 ACTIVITIES (MITIGATION):..........................................................................................................................................20
8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AFTER CLOSURE..............................................................................................20
8.4 MONITORING MEASURES.............................................................................................................................................21
9 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF MINES CLOSURE ON LOCAL COMMUNITY............................22
9.1 MITIGATION....................................................................................................................................................................22
9.2 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IMPACTS..........................................................................................................................22
9.3 MITIGATION OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IMPACT.............................................................................................23
9.4 GENDER DIMENSION OF MINING...............................................................................................................................23
9.4.1 IMPACTS OF MINING ON WOMEN:..........................................................................................................................24
9.4.1 MITIGATION...................................................................................................................................................................24
10 NVIRONMENTAL PLANNING......................................................................................................................................24
11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................................25
Appendix 1 AIR, WATER AND SOIL QUALITY STANDARDS................................................................................................26
APPENDIX 2 SUGGESTED TABLE OF CONTENT FOR MINING STAGE EIA STUDY REPORT....................................28
APPENDIX 3 CHECK LIST OF MINERAL AND PETROLEUM OPERATION AND MINERAL PROCESSING...............31
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................................................34
GLOSSARY
Acid mine drainage All sources of acid water in a mining operation, i.e. oxidation of sulphidic
mine waste, typically occurring as a runoff or seepage from waste rock stock
piles, tailings impoundments or coal rejects
Adit A horizontal underground passage directly connected to the surface and
intended to serve as a passage for underground mine.
Aquifer Rock or sediment in a formation, group of formations, or part of a formation
that is saturated and sufficiently permeable to transmit economic quantity of
water to wells and springs.
Artisanal mining Any operation which consists extracting and concentrating mineral substance
to obtain marketable product by using traditional or manual methods and
procedures
Base metals Base metals considered to be copper, lead or zinc, tin, zinc, mercury, and
antimony
Baseline information Monitoring data acquired prior to the beginning of a project such as
mining. This provides a basis for comparison and identification of charges
caused by the mining process
Catchments (drainage) The land area from which surface runoff drains into a stream (river)
system
Coal is a source of energy formed largely by burial of forest and swamp type of
vegetation under high pressure and temperature.
Closure The act of closing or the condition of a mine being closed
Effluent Any waste product, whether treated or not, from an industrial process, or other
human activities, that is discharged into the environment
Environmental impact Any change to the environment, either beneficial or adverse, wholly or
partly resulting from an organization’s activities, products or services
Exploration Exploration includes all activities involved in the discovery and evaluation of
mineral deposit
Flora All plant life in a region
Heap leach To dissolve minerals or metals out of an ore heap using chemicals
Hydrocarbon Chemical compounds whose molecules are composed of atoms of solely two
elements, carbon and hydrogen, whose combustion reaction produce a very
large amount of energy.
Industrial minerals and rocks Minerals and rocks of economic value, exclusive of metallic
minerals, fossil fuels and gemstones, comprises of construction and non-
construction materials, such as aggregates, cement making materials, building
and dimension stone and ceramics and refractory, abrasives, fillers , etc.
Leachates Solutions of chemicals leached out by water percolating through waste landfill,
overburden dumps, soil stockpile or contaminated undisturbed ground such as
that around underground storage tanks.
Mining Extraction of ore from the ground
Mineral development Establishment of the entire infrastructure of a mine site
Mineral or petroleum Operation All activities involved in the exploration and development of
mineral and petroleum reserves. The operation includes office planning and
preparation, field work such as exploration, infrastructure construction, mining
(extraction of mineral or petroleum), refining and marketing of mineral or
petroleum resource
Mineral processing (ore dressing) Milling of the ore, separation of ore minerals from
gangues, separation of the ore minerals into concentrate
Oil shale compact mudstone and clay sedimentary rock consisting of organic matter
which yields oil and gas when heated in oxygen less environment
Open pit mining Is defined as the mining of ores by surface mining methods where waste or
overburden is first removed and the mineral is broken and loaded
Operator/ owner or proponent An individual or a company that has ownership and/ or control of
a mineral / petroleum property either through lease of mining claims or other
type of ownership
Ore Economic metallic mineral deposits, industrial mineral deposits, and energy
mineral deposits
Overburden Unconsolidated material that must be removed from its original place to expose
the bedrock or ore body. It consists of topsoil and subsoil.
Petroleum Liquid substance composed principally of hydrocarbons which occur in
underground natural reservoirs
Pollutant Any solid, liquid or gas or combination including waste smokes, dust, fumes
and odour or noise, heat or anything declared by regulation to be a pollutant
Pollution To make unclear, impure, or corrupt; desecrate; defile; contaminate; dirty or
usually implies unnatural circumstances either physically, chemically, or
biologically impure that adversely or unreasonably impairs the existing quality
of the environment
Precious metals Metals of gold, silver and platinum groups
Prospecting Part of exploration, which deals with direct looking for indications of ore
mineralization in outcrops in sediments and soils
Quarry Open or surface working areas usually used for the extraction of construction
materials, such as building stones,
Reclamation The process of returning a disturbed area to its natural state, or to a state
suitable for equivalent or superior use or benefit
Rehabilitation Restoration work done during or at the end of a mining project which reduces
the physical, and chemical hazards on site, and which may also improve visual
aesthetics and the potential for some other beneficial use of the land to the
original or equally satisfactory condition.
Rock waste Rock materials of no economic value other than overburden that must be
removed to excavate the ore
Sealing The securing of mine entries, drifts, adits, slopes, shafts, and boreholes with
suitable materials to protect against fire, gas, and water emissions and for the
safety of the public
Shaft A vertical opening used as a passage directly with underground mining area
Smelting Recovering metals from mineral concentrates
Soil The upper portion of the earth’s layer that has been weathered by
environmental factors
Subsidence Gradual sinking of landform to a lower level as a result of earth movement and
mining operations
Surface mining Strip mining and open pit mining. Strip mining consists of stripping away layers
of soil and waste rocks over a mineral deposit often found in relatively
horizontal geological layers. Open pit mining involves excavating the earth’s
surface in a concentrated location to access the underlying mineral ore body.
Tailings Materials rejected from a mill after the recoverable minerals have been
extracted or Waste products arising from the grinding and treatment of rocks
with chemicals to extract desired minerals
Toxic Inorganic and organic chemicals even in extremely low concentrations may kill
organisms or reduce their growth
Undergrounds mining (subsurface mining) The ore extracted below ground by digging shafts
and adits as a passage to the underground and for ventilation
Waste Any solid, liquid or gas or combination that is left over, surplus or is unwanted
byproduct from any business or domestic activities or substance or mixture of
substance which has no current economic use
Water balance Calculation of all water gains and losses related to an operations such as
mine sites
1 INTRODUCTION
Mines and petroleum production bring prosperity to a country, in particular, to the area in
which they are established. One mine creates about three direct jobs: 1, directly for the
community, 2, for service giving organizations, and, 3, for construction industries. It can
also create indirect jobs for financial institutions and others. However, mines and
petroleum production activities are bound to have environmental impacts.
The technological development today, starting from the house utensils, electrical wires,
cars, building and road construction, space shuttles, medicines need mineral products. The
world demand for minerals will continue to increase and the world will continue to deplete
minerals. To balance the impacts of mining and petroleum productions on environment and
the demand for mineral, designing tools that can help for a safe and sustainable utilization
of the mineral resources is needed. One of the tools used for safe and sustainable
development of mineral resources is exercising environmental impact assessment
guidelines. To protect the environment from serious impacts that might arise from any
mining operation preparation of this guideline has become necessary. This guideline has
summarized:
Background/ or chronological development of the mining industry of Ethiopia briefly,
i.e.
- The exploration history and the development towards modern mine opening
and artisanal mines and their effect on the environment.
- In Ethiopia the artisanal mines tend to do more damage to the environment
with greater cost per unit of out put than modern mining. For this reason a
special attention is given to the environmental impact and mitigation
measures of artisanal mine,
- A review of petroleum and mineral operation laws relevant to the environment
and the Environmental Policy of Ethiopia,
The activities involved in minerals and hydrocarbon exploration, exploitation, refining
and marketing. This part of the guideline has covered the exploration phases which
includes the preliminary, advanced and deposit evaluation, and development of mine
(infrastructure development), production (mine), closure and post closure fellow up,
The impacts of exploration, surface and subsurface mining, mineral processing and
marketing on the environment and suggested mitigation measures and
environmental planning are stated in every corresponding sections .
Air, water and soil quality standards and checklist are included in the appendices.
The guideline is organized in such away that the impact of exploration is considered first,
development phase and mining phases separately with transfer of environmental
information from the preceding phase of operation (activities) to the next phase. The
preceding environmental study is a base to the following phase of activity. The
environmental impacts of mines and petroleum operations are related with the activities of
airborne geophysics, regional geological survey, ground geophysics and geochemistry
survey, stripping and trenching, sampling and assaying, drilling, infrastructure
development, mine plant construction, mine mills, smelting, tailing and waste rock deposit,
and marketing. Preliminary environmental study (base line survey) during the early
exploration, and full scale environmental impact assessment study during an advanced
exploration phase (underground shaft opening and bulk sampling of several hundred tones
of ore), development and production stage is necessary. in order to suppress the
environmental impact, taking mitigation measures and progressive rehabilitation during
operation and rehabilitation during decommissioning and monitoring after closure are
recommended.
Guidelines for environmental impact assessment can vary depending up on the type of
minerals to be explored and mined and method of mining, the law and regulations of the
Federal and Regional States, the size and location of the mine, type of support facilities
(technology), the environmental resources that will be affected and other factors.
1
Therefore, This guideline is not intending to be an exhaustive guide for environmental
impact assessment study of every mineral and petroleum operation projects. Rather it is a
document containing sufficient information relevant to environment protection measures to
be taken by operators engaged in mineral and petroleum exploration, regulatory bodies,
interested groups and the public who seek a generalized guideline to undertake an overall
environmental impact study that should be incorporated in report of mineral operations.
The need of high level national commitment to a clean and healthier environment is
growing all over the world. The ultimate responsibilities for the protection of the quality of
our environment should be a cooperative endeavor to be shared by Government, private
enterprise, and by the individual citizen. Among these groups the mining and petroleum
community should take their share of responsibility to protect the quality of our
environment.
The exercising of this guideline by the operators and others will be best when used in
conjunction with the procedural and review guidelines. This guideline document may
require updating in a course of time as more practical experience is achieved.
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE GUIDELINE
Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) is in charge of the environmental protection and
sustainable use of natural resources. This can be exercised by controlling the
implementation of environmental planes of development projects. In order to achieve EPA
its objectives introduction and exercising of various tools and guidelines in various
development sectors and regulatory units are necessary. In light of this an attempt has
been made to prepare environmental impact assessment guideline for the mineral and
petroleum operation projects in Ethiopia.
The specific objectives of this environmental impact assessments guideline is to establish a system and
provide guidance that enable to the operators engaged in mineral and petroleum operations and other
concerned parties to bring the impacts and mitigation measures into focus at such an early stage in the
planning process that those impacts may either be mitigated or avoided by means of:
Modify and improve design,
Better way of mining,
Ensure efficient of resource use,,
Enhance environment and social benefits,
Avoid, minimize or remedy adverse impact,
Identify key impacts and measures for mitigating them,
Avoid serious and irreversible damage to the environment,
Protect human health and safety,
Ensure that residual impacts are within acceptable level,
1.2 OVERVIEW OF THE MINING INDUSTRY AND MINES LEGAL
FRAMEWORKS IN ETHIOPIA
The modern mineral exploration commenced in 1867 by Blanfor, British Geologist. Since
then the exploration activities were on and off. During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia,
exploration for minerals accelerated significantly than ever before. To day the exploration
for minerals is progressing with the assistance of modern technology. The establishment of
Geological Survey of Ethiopia accelerated further the exploration activities.
However, the discovery of economic mineral deposits were limited to the Adola Gold
deposit and other few industrial minerals (soda ash, rock salt, potash, ceramics, etc) and
construction materials (cement raw materials, dimension stones such as marble, granite,
2
etc.). At present the mining industry (extraction of minerals) in Ethiopia is not very
important in terms of its distribution, size, and its economic contribution.
According to reports released by the Ministry of Mines and other published studies more
than 500,000 people are engaged in traditional construction material production and gold
mining along several river banks and residue soil developed on primary gold deposits.
Extraction of industrial minerals and rocks and the artisanal mining activities for gold have
already been reported to have caused environmental impacts, i.e, human death, erosion of
arable land, etc.. The traditional miners at place use mercury, and remove plants which can
cause change to the environment due to soil destruction, chemicalization of soil and water.
In the Ethiopian case the environmental problem associated with the traditional mining
activities is more sever than in the modern mines which have legal entities. The traditional
miners have not fulfilled legal requirements, no control of gold trade, mining planning,
safety procedure, no documentation, poor sanitation condition, and no proper medical
services. All those problems can cause environmental and social problems.
Digging, creating embankments, clearing shrubs, and trees contribute to the degradation of
arable land. Dust produced by crushing, digging, sluicing can cause eye troubles, skin
diseases, respiratory infections, and security problem, child labor, child prostitution are also
problems associated with artisanal mining.
1.3 POLICY AND LEGAL REQUIREMENTS
The environmental policy, mineral and petroleum operation laws are some of the tools
introduced in order to safeguard the environment form impacts related to these area.
1.4 REQUIREMENTS OF THE ETHIOPIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (1997), with regard to the minerals and energy (fossil
fuel or petroleum and coal) development and use impact on the environment are spinning
around the following points.
Long-term usability of land be safeguarded;
Promote environmental protection, safe mining method and reclamation of
abandoned mining area;
Establish a guarantee for the restoration of the land to its previous conditions;
Promote development and sustainable utilization of renewable energy resources;
Reduce use of fossil energy;
Energy conservation;
1.5 CATEGORIES OF THE MINING LICENSES IN ETHIOPIA
The mining proclamation No. 52/1993, part I, article 2(9) has classified the mine licenses for
mineral operations into three license ranks:
Prospecting license;
Exploration license, and
Mine for minerals (exploitation) license.
3
The license for mine for minerals in Ethiopia is subdivided further into:
1. Artisanal mining;
2. Small scale mining; and
3. Large scale mining.
1.6 REQUIREMENTS OF THE MINING AND PETROLEUM OPERATION LAWS
The proclamation No. 52/1993, mentioned above has provided different degree of right to
the various licensees to use the natural resources, such as:
Construction minerals and rocks, water and timber is allowed, but is restricted not to
use surface water if such use of water results in substantial reduction for other users
or if it results in pollution. Dam construction and river diversion also need prior
approval by concerned authority;
If displacement of the occupants is required the licensee should negotiate with the
occupant for compensation payment or the Government intervenes and settle the
dispute between the occupant and licensee;
Construct infrastructure necessary for operations, communications, roads, power,
industrial, administrative, residential, medical and other buildings necessary for
mining operations is permitted on temporary bases for prospecting, exploration and
artisanal mining operators. All construction of permanent nature can be removed by
the licensee or abandoned and become Government property;
The Petroleum Operations Proclamation No.295 of 1986 has stated areas precluded
from petroleum operations; such as anthropological, archaeological, and historical
objects and sites; prevent damage to subsurface formations and ensure petroleum,
mud or any other fluids of substance do not waste or escape from the hole to
surface,
If the Ministry of Mines thinks that the petroleum operations may endanger persons
or property, harm natural resources or the general environment, can order to
discontinue the operations. Environmental considerations with regard to the
petroleum operations mainly focuses on exploration boreholes and their
surroundings. It has not considered the environmental damage that might occur
during the pre-drilling exploration activities and during production.
1.7 THE SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)
EIA study of mineral and petroleum operations considers how the exploration,
development, processing and marketing of minerals will affect the:
Local human population,
Local and regional wildlife population,
Local land use and overall ecology,
Change to land and water regimes and land contours,
The disposal of mine waste and tailings, together with other issues such as
transportation of product to market all have to be evaluated.
4
The consequences of mineral, and hydrocarbon resource exploration and development on
the environment is enormous and complex. Therefore, EIA study should be conducted by a
team composed of:
Subject area expert (environmental geologist),
Pollution control,
Land use,
Socio-economist,
Ecologist, and
Environmental health experts.
Mineral and petroleum operation are projects of many stages. The collection of data for
environmental impact assessment for mineral and petroleum operations should be made as
part of this process. The environmental impact assessment study in mineral and petroleum
operations should be separated into two categories. One is for operation that might
terminate in the exploration stage, and the second for operations that might intend to a
development and mine minerals and petroleum production. Basic base line data
information needed include:
Geological, hydrogeological, botanical, zoological, archaeological, historical,
cultural, sociological, and economic,
The existing land use,
The relative abundance, quality and regenerative capacity of natural resources in
the area,
The absorption capacity of the natural environment
Trans-boundary impact and complexity,
Provide basic information for assessing any changes,
Set the initial level of element concentrations of surficial materials to be
monitored in monitoring programs,
2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND MITIGATION CONSIDERATIONS
The purpose of mitigation is:
Find better way of developing mineral and petroleum resources,
Enhance environmental and social benefits,
Avoid, minimize or remedy adverse impacts,
Ensure that residual impacts are within acceptable limit,
2.1 Exploration
The exploration for minerals has two stages:
Surface exploration, and
Subsurface exploration.
5
2.1.1 SURFACE EXPLORATION
Airborne and ground-based geochemical, and geophysical surveys, line cutting, stripping,
and trenching, road/trail building and or helicopter transport, bulk sampling are the main
activities of exploration.
2.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:
Environmental impacts of surface exploration are:
Trail/road and trenching related erosion
Tree clearing during construction of paths of field trucks,
Seismic lines, and aircraft strips,
Habitat disruption;
Noise pollution,
Landscape distraction
Digging, trenching and excavation, quarrying, and use of explosives
Camp garbage;
Dissemination of diseases in the human, animal or vegetation populations with the moving vehicles and
workers;
Camp sites impact due to production of waste, used engine oil, packing garbage
2.1.3 MITIGATION OF SURFACE EXPLORATION IMPACT
Up grade and use existing tracks and roads;
Refilling pits and trenches to their initial situation.
Minimize vegetation clearing along seismic lines
By curving survey profiles around prominent trees,
Using explosives instead of vibrosis,
Limiting the radius of explosive effect on aquifers,
Minimizing clearing trees at comp sites
3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
The surface exploration is followed by subsurface exploration The subsurface exploration
can cause diverse effects both on the surface and subsurface environments. The
environmental issues, impacts and mitigation indicated above for surface exploration can
also work for the early stage of subsurface exploration.
6
3.1 THE MAJOR IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
Tree clearing
At well sits,
Camp sits,
All the way along the access, and
Seismic and other geophysical profiles;
Increase in traffic density;
Disturbance of subsurface formations;
Introduction of drilling fluids, drilling chemicals, surface water and drilling oils to
subsurface environment, such as;
Salt saturated fluid,
Oil-based fluid;
Gas-based fluid;
Reagents such a sodium acid pyrophosphate, sodium tetra phosphate,
lignite, tannin, low viscosity carbo-xynethyle, etc.
Draining of chemicals used for sample analysis at well site, such as HCl,
HNO3, K3Fe(CN)6;
Morphological leveling (alteration) along the access;
Various level aquifer water mixing;
The production of camp waste, used engine oils, shipping garbage;
The risk of accidents (mechanical, electrical, blasting, etc);
Change of the existing land use (if drilling site lays on farm land);
Causing social disorder (change of social structure and customs, displacement);
The excavation of exploratory shafts, Adits or declines,
The digging of test pits and trenches, and the associated removal of material for bulk
testing.
The installation of a portable pilot plant or other temporary facility for subsurface ore
and rock testing purposes, or any other significant ground disturbance conducted to
determine the existence of a commercially exploitable mineral deposit can destroy
natural setup of rocks and can trigger artificial discontinuity on the rocks ,
7
3.1.2 MITIGATION MEASURES FOR IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE
EXPLORATION
Minimize noise and dust when working near residential areas;
Decrease the number of vehicles,
Regular servicing vehicles,
Control noise sources,
Use good blast design.
Keep site clean and tidy
Remove all rubbish;
Remove all equipment and litter from the site;
Identify any rare or endangered species and ensure their protection;
Avoid spreading any plant or animal disease or noxious weeds;
Use existing tracks wherever possible and keep clearing to an absolute minimum;
Design new tracks to go around significant trees and roll vegetation, where necessary,
so as to maintain topsoil and root systems;
Avoid environmentally sensitive locations such as creek banks and areas subject to
erosion;
All fuel, and chemicals should be stored properly to avoid contamination of water or
land;
Ensure saline or contaminated water and drill fluids are not discharged into the
surrounding environment via sumps, controlled drainage etc;
Drill holes should be capped, permanently plug or seal or filled in (grouted), excavations
back filled or fenced if they are to be left open and markers removed;
Avoid unnecessary disturbance to surface soil to prevent erosion and retain as much
vegetation as possible; stabilize surface, if possible,
Surface re-contouring or diversion to establish drainage pattern
Minimize risk of fire;
Where vegetation has to be cleared, stockpile the topsoil (separately from the subsoil)
and replace on disturbed areas (seeded or fertilized if required);
Disturbed areas should be ripped to facilitate re-vegetation. The uneven surface will
retain moisture from rainfall and windblown plant seed;
Arrangements should be made for periodic monitoring and assessment of remedial
action;
4 MITIGATION,COMPENSATION AND REABILITATION COST CONSIDERATIONS
Mining and petroleum operation environmental impacts mitigation and rehabilitation and
associated costs occur throughout the cycle of exploration, development, mineral
extraction, beneficiation, processing petroleum production, and transportation. The
feasibility study of projects should consider and integrate the environmental cost of the
project.
Direct environmental costs
Assessment cost;
Base-line study cost,
Environmental impact analyses and report preparation cost;
Prevention cost, such as tailing dams construction;
Mitigation cost such as gaseous emission control and effluent/discharge control cost;
Closure and reclamation cost;
Waste disposal and contaminant control;
8
Waste and disposal stabilization,
Backfill of previous mined-out openings;
Compensation cost to affected parties or for irrecoverable damage to the environment;
Indirect environmental cost, such as telephone, electrical, transportation cost,
Management cost such as
Monitoring, stuff salary, training, etc should be taken into consideration during the
financial analysis of the project.
4.1 MINE DEVELOPMENT (ESTABLISHMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE)
The activities involved in mine infrastructure development are:
Site preparation for mining
- Removing vegetation
- Leveling, cut and fill operations, excavating,
- Quarry opening and the like
4.1.1 IMPACTS OF MINE DEVELOPMENT
Evapo-transpiration regime imbalance,
Excessive erosion,
Quarries can result in ponds, ragged topography, etc,
Slope instability,
Change in stream flow rate patterns,
Increase turbidity of streams and lakes
Stream sedimentation;
Degradation of stream and river beds resulting from road building and
drainage change;
Obstruction of fish reproduction;
Dust problems,
Habitat fragmentation i.e. roads disrupt:
Calving/rearing grounds,
Key forage areas,
Movement and migratory routes
9
Increased wildlife mortality;
Collision between vehicles and wildlife;
Uncontrolled hunting, poaching;
Pollutants in pristine areas;
Chemicalization of soil:
Gas, oil, drill-core slurry, ground core assay chemicals;
Abandoned structures;
Garbage and noise;
4.1.2 QUARRIES
Quarries are opened for production of construction material such as selected materials for
roads construction, dimension stones for buildings, gravel and aggregates, and ceramic and
cement raw materials, etc.
Activities undertaking in quarry development are:
Drilling
Overburden removal (disposal)
Plant site excavation,
Quarry development,
Blasting,
Road and access construction,
Formation of vertical cliff,
Development of ponds,
Erection of plant and ancillary structures
Landform (ragged topography) creation,
Accumulation sites of huge dirt
Mass wasting (erosion)
4.1.3 Impacts of quarry site
Ponds developed in a quarry can serve as breeding ground for water born disease
and mosquitoes,
Children who swim in quarry ponds could draw down and die and can be a threat to
animals,
The vertical cliffs can cause death to animals and human live,
10
Land slide and land fall,
Production of dust,
Overburden disposal accumulation,
Affecting farm land or cause land use change,
4.1.4 Mitigation
Restoration of the completed overburden disposal areas
Should be cultivated and seeded and tree planted,
Adopt the safest quarry opening method,
Eliminate hazardous high walls
Shooting down the high walls
Cover by soil and re-vegetation
Establish appropriate quarry drainage system,
Rehabilitate quarries and refill irregular and level surfaces around quarry sites,
Re-vegetate abandoned quarry sites
5 MINING (EXTRACTION OF MINERALS) AND MINERAL PROCESSING (SEPARATION OF ORE
MINERALS FROM GANGUE),
A mine site is place of activities of:
Digging,
Transportation (barges/air access routes),
Energy infrastructures (power lines) tailings pond, waste rock piles, and processing
plants construction,
Stripping/storing of overburden of soil, ore extraction, crushing/grinding of ore, flotation
or chemical concentration of ore, mine and surface water treatment,
Storage of waste rock and tailings.
Acid drainage does occur when sulfide minerals are exposed to weathering and react with
water and oxygen to produce acidic solutions, such as sulfuric acid. The acid leaches
release heavy metals such as The mining toxic pollutants include the following:
Antimony and compounds;
Arsenic and compounds;
Asbestos;
Beryllium and compounds;
Cadmium and compounds;
11
Chromium and compounds;
Copper and compounds;
Lead and compounds;
Mercury and compounds;
Nickel and compounds;
Selenium and compounds;
Silver and compounds;
lead, zinc, copper, arsenic, selenium, mercury and cadmium are the elements known as
heavy metal.
5.1 MINE CLASSIFICATION
Following the surface and subsurface exploration, if the feasibility study proves the mineral
deposit to be commercial, the whole operation transforms from exploration to extraction of
minerals. Mines are classified in to:
Surface mine;
Subsurface mine.
5.1.1 SURFACE MINING:
Artisanal mining
Open pit mining ,
In bench or steps,
Overburden removed by stripping,
Quarrying (dimension stone),
Open cast or strip mining, overburden removed,
Auger mining,
Aqueous extraction (placer mining and solution mining).
5.1.2 IMPACT OF SURFACE MINING
5.1.3 Impact of artisanal mining
Artisanal miners and small scale miners tend to do more damage to the environment than
those workin
Digging and creating:
12
- Embankments,
- Trenches
- Excavated pits,
- Land slides,
- Tailing pile in river beds,
- Deforestation,
- Dust production,
- Waste mineral resources,
- River siltation,
- Hazardous to death,
Exposure to dust
Exposure to chemicals, heat, lack of oxygen,
Erosion damage,
Social unrest,
Effect on the ecosystem,
5.1.4 Mitigation measures of artisanal mining impact
Establishing legal and institutional conditions,
Provision of technical assistance,
Introduce mining extension services,
Establish authority structure in the mining site,
Establishment of incentive scheme to reduce damage on environment,
o Providing picks, sluice boxes, etc.
Promotion of artisanal miners to small scale mine cooperatives.
5.1.5 Impact of large scale surface mining
Impacts on physical stability
Destruction and disruption of vegetation;
Removal of top soils,
Disruption of natural drainage pattern and land use;
Impacts of chemicalization (acide mine drainage)
13
Erosion of cleared areas and soil overburden dumps leading to sedimentation and
pollution of water courses due to;
Imbalance of acidity and alkalinity
Heavy metals from tailings and process chemicals
Suspended solids (turbidity) due to:
inadequate setting in tailings pond
wave action on tailings pond
high runoff over un vegetated loose material
Dust created during operations creating visibility problems and loss of agricultural
production;
Water consumption effect;
Visual impacts,
Modification of land forms,
Noise and vibration effect from machinery;
Blast effects;
Silicosis and other respiratory problems.
5.1.6 MITIGATION MEASURES OF LARGE SCALE SURFACE MINING IMPACTS
Restore the land to a condition capable of supporting pre-mining uses or higher or
better uses;
Stabilize slopes by
Flattening slopes
Construct toe berm
Establish vegetation or place riprap,
Provide stable spillway and overflow
Restore the approximate original contour of the land;
stabilize surface areas and spoil piles to control erosion and air and water pollution;
Develop a top soil management,
Reuse topsoil in rehabilitation program,
Control reactions,
Control chemical migration,
14
Collect and treat,
Remove, segregate, protect, and replace topsoil or other strata shown to be more
suitable for supporting vegetation;
Utilize special handling for the various soil horizons present in prime farmland
Create appropriate water impoundments that are stable and that protect water
quality;
Seal auger holes to protect drainage;
Minimize disturbance to the prevailing hydrologic balance on and off the mine site;
Construct stable and re-vegetated surface disposal areas for mine wastes, and
tailings;
Treat, bury, or dispose of acid-forming, toxic, or combustible waste materials to
prevent water contamination;
Control acid drainage and or leaching of metals or contaminants
Underwater disposal to control reactions
Pre-treatment-blending of alkaline material to mitigate acid drainage
Detoxify by flushing with water or with lime solution
Use explosives in accordance with existing federal and regional laws ;
Construct and maintain access roads so that erosion, siltation, water pollution,
damage to fish and wild life or their habitat, or damage to public or private property
will be prevented;
Upgrade and use existing roads,
Reduce road congestion.
Refrain from road construction that will seriously alter the flow of streams or
drainage channels;
Re-vegetate disturbed lands with diverse, effective, and permanent species native to
the area;
Protect off site areas from slides or damage occurring during the mining and
reclamation operations;
Place excess spoil material in such a manner to assure stability and proper drainage
and prevent erosion;
Use the best technology currently available to minimize disturbance and adverse
impacts on fish, wildlife, and environmental values;
Progressive backfilling to minimize land disturbance;
Minimize dust migration
15
Use dust control equipments like covers or control devices for crushing and
milling to avoid the generation of dust; watering for dusty roads,
Minimize area of stripping,
Rehabilitate mined area as soon as possible,
Consider using binders on haul roads
Minimization of acid mine drainage generation;
Diversion of leachates from waste heaps to avoid contact with and contamination
of surface water and groundwater;
Use sedimentation ponds,
Harvesting water,
Minimization of fresh water intake;
Use of ditches to divert surface runoff from tailing ponds;
Collection and recycling of waste oils and lubricants;
Prevention of spills of chemicals;
Packaging as required and labeling in languages necessary to identify the
material
Task and safety training for transporters
Provision of appropriate storage area for chemicals and fuels,
Avoidance of the use of toxic floatation agents;
Control of noise:
Through the use of berms and mufflers,
Use good blast design,
5.2 SUBSURFACE MINING:
Self-supported;
- Room and pillar mining;
- Stop and pillar mining;
- Shrinkage stopping;
- Sublevel stopping;
- Vertical crater retreated mining;
Supported mining;
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- Sut and fill stopping,
- Stull stopping,
Caving method;
- Long wall mining;
- Mublevel caving;
- Block caving;
Novel mining
- Rapid excavation;
- Hydraulic mining;
- Methane drainage;
- Subsurface gasification, etc
- deplete high-grade shallow minerals,
- deplete deeper low-grade deposits;
- interdisciplinary approach in planning and in decision making;
- develop methods that ensure environmental values are considered in the
decision making process.
5.2.1 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE MINING
Change in quantity and quality of water, Water consumption effect;
Potential impact on aquifer;
Groundwater inflow expected into the mine,
Drying of wetlands and, streams, lakes, ponds and springs;
Surface water quality change;
Dams, embankments and impoundments,
Surface and ground water flow pattern change;
Change on current surface water use;
Change on horizontal extent of water table;
Change on aquifer recharge and storage characteristics;
Location of waste, refuse ore and removed overburden;
Location of the various mining operations;
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Blasting;
Spreading dust;
Noise effects;
Major change on the economic activities and source of employment;
Social effects (relocation of population, cultural change, impact of mining on human
health, living conditions and well being, change in population size, availability of
services, employment, business possibilities, conflicts among the population);
Production of surface spoil heaps with sedimentation and acidification of water courses
alteration of water quality of large area;
Loss of agricultural productivity caused by change on the flora and fauna distribution
and natural diversity due to subsidence. Surface subsidence takes place if mining is
subsurface;
Devastates fish and aquatic habitat,
Erosion and sedimentation;
Noise; vibration and blast effect,
High temperature;
Air pollution from dust, emissions,
Limited light for the miners;
Change on landscape;
Surface soil texture disturbance and stripping of soil;
Chemicalization of the environment by toxic pollutants such as
Acid mine drainage from active mines;
Acid drainage from abandoned mine;
Acid runoff;
Toxic heavy metals;
Chemical agents;
The mitigation measures are similar to the surface mining impacts, but in this type of
mining securing and sealing of openings are important
Surface cover and capping of openings
Backfilling
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Shaft and adit plugs
6 HYDROCARBONS (PETROLEUM AND COAL) AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Every hour nearly 1000,000 tons of fossil fuel burns allover the world. When the fossil fuel
burn they produce poisonous gases and pollute vast areas. 88% of the worlds commercial
energy is produced from the non-renewable fossil fuel resources. Coal covers 28%, Oil 38%
and natural gas 21% respectively. USA uses 12 ton coal equivalent per capital (TCE),
Europe uses 5TCE per capital, developing countries use 0.5TCE per capital. But everyone is
paying the cost of global environmental problem equally.
Exploration for petroleum in Ethiopia has been undergoing since 1920. Only small amount
of condensate was discovered in 1971 in the Ogaden Basin. Exploration for coal is also
progressing in southwest. Several hundred million tons of lignite rank coal and oil shale
reserve have been proven so far in many pats of the country. According to the study of the
World Bank (1983) petroleum energy consumption of Ethiopia is 6.5% of the total annual
energy consumption.
6.1 GROUPS OF FOSSIL FUELS
Fossil fuels are classified as:
Coal (peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite);
Oil;
Natural gas;
Oil shale (not used in Ethiopia at the moment).
6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF FOSSIL FUELS
Impact during exploration (Ref. previous sections);
Impact during development (Ref. previous sections);
Impacts during use of fossil fuels;
Land subsidence;
6.2.1 IMPACTS OF COAL MINE ON ENVIRONMENT
The effects of coal mines include:
Landscape disruption on surface,
Disturbance of land,
Removing vegetation,
Moving overburden,
Removal of coal
Erosion of soil,
Dust pollution,
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Acid mine drainage,
Contamination of drinking water,
Disruption of growth and reproduction of aquatic plants and animals,
and
Corrosion of bridges
Subsidence of surface if subsurface mine collapses,
Accumulations of waste heaps,
Health problems due to smoke, soot, SO2, release of trace elements, and compounds of
C, N, S;
Dust due to loading and unloading;
6.2.2 IMPACTS OF COAL UTILIZATION
Environmental impact of coal utilization includes:
Combustion related air pollution,
carbon dioxide from combustion,
Nitrous oxide,
Methane
Respiratory related problems due to dust, SOx, NOx, suspended particles, O3,
CO3, Hg, Se, F, B, Cr, V;
Coal greenhouse gas,
Waste disposal,
Disposal of fly ash and residues;
Table 1 Summary of impacts of coal mine and use of coal on the environment
Source of impact Primary exposure Possible health impact
Subsurface
mining
Dust, noise, diesel exhaust,
(SO2, CO, CO2, H2SO4)
Pneumoconiosis, hearing loss,
cancer, respiratory irritation.
Surface mining Acid mine drainage, heavy
metals (Pb, Cd, As), increase
in pH
Cancer, Cardiovascular disease,
etc.
Cleaning and
preparation of
coal
Dust, trace elements (Cd,
Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Ni, Pb, Zn,
As, Mn, Se,) SO2, Organics
Cancer (respiratory, nasal,
dermatitis, etc)
Transportation of Dust, water contamination Respiratory irritation
20
coal
Combustion Air emission, fly ash, residue The above mentioned disease
and loss of resistance to
infection.
6.2.3 Mitigation of coal impacts
Reduce emission by using best technology currently available,
Use electric power for zero emission,
Develop new emission control technology,
Reduce dust by early vegetation,
6.2.4 IMPACTS OF OIL AND GAS ON ENVIRONMENT
Oil and gas are produced from very expensive deep wells. After produced from the wells
the oil passes through many stages of distillation and refining process before it is used. In
addition to the use of petroleum as source of fuel they are used as raw materials for petro-
chemical industries. Oil spills and leakage on land can contaminate soil and subsurface
water while evaporation of oil products and incomplete burning of oil fuels result in air
pollution. In cities and towns oils and lubricants pollution of rivers and subsurface water
takes place from fuel stations and garages. The soluble hydrocarbons that enter water
system are benzene, toluene, ethyl-benzene, etc.
Impacts of oil are:
Organic contamination of drinking water;
Cause cancer in human and animals,
Liver damage,
Impairment of cardiovascular function,
Depression of nervous system,
Brain disorder, etc.
Release of CO2 and H2O from oil combustion,
CO2 can cause global warming
6.2.5 MITIGATION OF THE OIL FUEL IMPACTS:
Use of alternative energy source;
Geothermal,
21
Solar,
Wind,
Hydrothermal, etc.
Maximize use of fresh water based drilling mud,
Recycle drilling mud,
Store crude oil in thanks,
Minimize and control leakage from thanks and pipelines, fuel stations to halt spill and
leakage of oil;
Develop system of handling used (old) engine oils and lubricants from garages;
Improve in the fuel combustion efficiency of vehicles
Improving both design and mode of fuel use, such as compression ratio,
turbocharger, decreasing the mass of the vehicles, rolling resistance of
vehicles, regular servicing, etc
Fuel supplies should be stored above high water level
If oil is spilled on land it should not be removed or buried. Attempts to do so can create
more problem; the area affected can be
Fenced to protect wild life;
Introduce petroleum consuming local soil bacteria
Stream crossing should be designed so that flow is not affected, causing deposition of
sediments;
Oil, drilling fluids, garbage, and other contaminants should not be dumped in lakes and
streams;
Cutting of line and stripping of vegetation should be minimized,
If there is a possibility of contaminating drinking water wells, it may be advisable to
grout all exploration holes.
Test pits, trenches, and other excavations should be filled in after use.
After/during production of petroleum, reservoirs should be injected with water and gas
(air, such as nitrogen) to overcome surface subsidence
7 SMELTING (RECOVERING OF METALS), REFINING, AND MARKETING
Activities: Processing of mineral concentrates by heat or electro-chemical.
22
Environmental issues:
Sulfur dioxide emission contribute to acid rain,
Toxic chemicals,
High energy requirements,
7.1 MITIGATION OF ACID DRAINAGE FROM MINE AND SMELTING SITES
In the case of precious metal heap leach operation cyanide neutralization of acid mine
drainage takes place by:
Natural degradation and detoxification;
Covers and seals for exclusion of oxygen,
Pilling of tailing under water for exclusion of oxygen,
Cover and seal of tailings to reduce water infiltration,
High UV level and strong winds for nine months would make natural degradation of
cyanide;
Rinsing with barren solutions (clean water)to clean the entire heap reduces the
concentration of cyanide;
Biological treatment for destruction of cyanide
Using of bacteria proven to oxidize cyanide
Chemical treatment
Acid leachate collected in ponds neutralized with lime;
Sulfur dioxide and air oxidation method (added in conjunction with lime and
copper catalyst);
Alkaline chlorination (either chlorine gas or calcium hypochlorite are used in the
oxidation process);
Hydrogen peroxide oxidation (clean, but expensive)
Ferrous sulfate (chemical distraction of cyanide);
Clean up of mine sites;
Accurate prediction of site water balance
Discharge
Evaporation
And process requirement
Abandoned mine land reclamation;
The cover should be graded and compacted to minimize infiltration,
23
Accurate prediction of geochemical behavior of waste rock, tailing, ore heaps, open pit,
or subsurface workings when exposed to an oxidizing environment,
Adequate physical and geochemical stablization of mine waste materials
Adequate environmental and operational monitoring to identify charges in initial design
assumptions,
Control on disposal of mining and beneficiation waste;
All process fluids should be detoxified and evaporated from the site,
Control airborne toxic substances.
8 MINE CLOSURE AND DECOMMISSIONING
All mines will eventually close when the mines stops operating due to economic conditions.
When a mine permanently stops appropriate mine closure should take place. The issues are
waste rock landforms, process plant site, road/hardstands, infrastructure areas, open pits,
etc..
8.1 IMPACTS OF IMPROPERLY CLOSED MINES
Void collapse:
Subsurface subsidence
Slumping of tailing and waste rock pile
Wall failure,
Erosion and structural instability
Acid rock drainage
External and internal instability,
Acide soil,
Gas emissions,
Adverse groundwater and surface water quality
Public safety
Human injury or death
8.1.1 MITIGATION
Backfill upper level of voids with waste rocks,
Profiling,
Ripping, and surface cover to prevent wind erosion,
24
Drainage control,
Capping tailings and waste rock with 1 m thick material
Integrate subsidence, land form and river diversion
Treat and replace acid water, introduce sulfides reducing bacteria, segregate known
aquifers
Environmental protection,
Subsurface mine openings are sealed,
Surface facilities are removed,
Demolish plants, equipments
Surface mines and the subsurface areas of subsurface mines are reclaimed.
Secure pits, dumps,, impoundments, etc.
Protect and clean up of ground water,
Protect from acid rock drainage,
Rehabilitate and re-vegetate
Disposal of assets,
Social mitigation, mine closure means a sharp drop in the standard of living for the
local community and the region, tax revenue falls as demand for services increase
Mitigating impacts on employees, the community and others whose jobs depend on
mining, and a local government,
Retraining for other job,
Ensure food security and service delivery,
Protecting the most vulnerable,
Subsurface mine openings are sealed,
Surface facilities are removed,
Surface mines and the subsurface areas of subsurface mines are reclaimed.
Only after these activities are completed can the mining company abandon the site.. Even
after the mine is abandoned post mining liabilities rest with the mining company
The objectives of successful mine closure are to provide long-term protection to surface
and groundwater resources, establish a stable physical setting, return the site to pre-mining
or other land use, and develop a low-maintenance situation for the mining company. A
period of post-closure monitoring is typically required.
8.1.2 Mitigation of mine site impacts
25
Mine closure sites environmental problems can be mitigated by:
Restricting the mobility of constituents in heaps and impoundments,
Sealing and rehabilitation of open pits and quarries,
Eliminate any danger to the health and safety of the public,
Backfill material selected must be free of acid / toxic forming and combustible
materials
Reduction of constituents in solution,
Rinsing/treatment of tailings,
Water balance,
Determine if a hydraulic head will be placed on the mine seal after closure,
Control the movement of subsurface water or hydrologic communication,
Mine facility removal
Demolition of existing structures,
Debris removal,
Debris disposal,
Waste disposal areas,
Utilities and roadways,
Drainage facilities,
Removal of hazardous materials,
Percolation of solution through heaps, and
Acid generation from tailings and waste rocks, tailing impoundment,
Control tailing erosion, slope failure, weathering, drainage disruption,
Establish erosion resistant cover of vegetation soil, riprap or water cover,
Appropriate site selection and dam design,
Implement permanent control measures,
Most mines are required to post a reclamation performance bond that is to be used by a
regulatory agency to reclaim an area in the event of forfeiture. The setting of rehabilitation
bonds serves the purpose of reducing the risk of failure of the lease holder to the
government to meet the environment management commitments. Several methods are
introduced.
Irrevocable Letter of Credit – an agreement between the company and the bank
where by bank will provide cash funds to the authorities if the company defaults;
26
Performance Bond – a surety bond issued by an insurance company in which the
insurer is responsible for all claims up to an agreed limit;
Trust Fund – a fund that operates in a similar fashion to a pension fund with regular
contributions being invested by a fund manager,
Insurance policy- a special form of performance bond,
Parent _Company Guarantee-the parent company guarantees to indemnify the
Government in the events of a company default,
Pledging of Assets-the company assets are pledged to the Government.
The above methods of rehabilitation bonds arrangement are taken from the experiences
of Queensland state of Australia.
8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES DURING DECOMMISSIONING
The following factors are important when considering decommissioning a mine.
Public safety hazardous and risk,
Ecological compatibility,
Potential as on going source of pollution,
Community expectation,
Future land use and resource demands,
Aesthetics
Seepage of toxic solutions into ground and surface water contamination from acid
mine drainage,
Wildlife and fisheries habitat loss,
Re-vegetation failure,
Wind borne dust,
Slope and tailings impoundment failure,
8.3 ACTIVITIES (MITIGATION):
Demolition or disposal of structures and buildings,
Removal of foundations and debris,
Ongoing seepage control,
Long term stability of waste rock disposal area against water and wind erosion,
A conformational geochemical evaluation determined no potential impact to ground
water from infiltration of precipitation through the waste rock disposal area
Re-contouring of pit walls, and waste dumps,
27
Covering of reactive tailings dumps,
Decommissioning of roads,
Dismantling of buildings,
Re-seeding/planting of disturbed areas,
Monitoring and possible water quality treatment.
Rehabilitation measures
Sealing of subsurface workings and rehabilitation of dangerous excavations,
Prevent inadvertent access, and permanently seal openings
Surface stabilization and re-contouring,
Underground stabilization,
Control reactions
Control migration of elements and water,
Permanently plug workings and drill-holes to control migration,
Collect and treat acid mine drainage,
8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AFTER CLOSURE
Monitoring is carried out for physical stability, chemical stability, and for environmental
impact. The purpose of post-closure monitoring is to evaluate the success of closure
activities, to map out the actual environmental impact and the resulting changes in the
environmental conditions in the impact area of a project. After reclaiming a mine site, there
will probably be several years of maintenance activity required. This will include periodic
inspection of the site to verify that the reclamation is effective. Areas need monitoring are
shaft, adits, plugs, slopes, covers, dams, ditches, etc. The impacts are:
Access disturbance,
Surface slumps,
Erosion,
Acid generation and leaching of metals,
Waste rock land forms
Erosion
Dust
Tailings storage problems
Seepage
Erosion
28
Process plant sites
Infrastructural areas
Underground workings
Subsidence,
Shaft vent capping
Open pit
Pit wall stability
pit water quality
Adjacent band down stream areas
Dust
Surface water quality
Potential Monitoring Activities (methods) include:
Visual inspection
Inspect ditches, berms, fences, signals,
Look for cracks, scraps, change in drainage patterns,
Displacement and settlement,
Seepage,
Flow rate of leakage,
Alluvial fans,
Piezometers,
Debris and blockages,
Sampling of down stream surface and groundwater drainage
Verification that mine seals are effective,
Cleaning out of sediments and erosion control structures, primary ponds and ditches,
Verification that the water discharges are within the permited effluent limited,
Regarding and reseeding of areas, as required,
The quality of surface and groundwater,
The level of groundwater, the quality of process water led into the waterways;
and
The spreading of dust.
29
8.4 MONITORING MEASURES
Visual inspection,
Analysis of sediment loading in runoff,
Monitoring bore,
Water sample analysis, etc
9 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF MINES CLOSURE ON LOCAL COMMUNITY
Socioeconomic impacts need to clarify the type, duration, spatial, extent and distribution of
the impact. This incorporates: direct verses indirect impacts, period of time (exploration to
closure and beyond) the boundaries of the impact zone, and the affected group.
Exploration is first and the least intrusive. It involves a small work force for limited
period of time,
The period of mine development and of plants for associated surface activities is the
most disruptive event. It lasts for a few years, but can involve the largest number of
people. Work force is transient in character,
The period of mine and plant operation is the longest, often two decades or more. It
usually provides the greatest economic rewards to the community,
The final stage is abandonment. This is negative event on both economic and social
counts,
A large temporary increase in local employment increases local demand in housing
and all types of public services,
The groups of workers will change throughout the period, because the type of
workers needed shifts as development progresses,
Retail and service establishments increase,
Increase of local wage, cost of housing and property taxes,
Overload roads, schools, public and private services,
Mine closing can impact community who were providing goods and services to the
mine,
Abandonment of mine may leave population stranded without sufficient economic
activities and can create ghost towns and villages.
The demography and settlement patterns including potential changes due to
relocation and migration,
The land use systems and natural resource utilization and the possible impact,
The cultural and social impacts, including business development, mine-related
payments, social disruptive influences and law and order,
The health and nutrition status of the population and adequacy of health facilities
and the potential for mine related change,
30
The education facilities and services, employment and income level of the people in
the immediate area of the project,
The existing transport, power, water, sewage, waste disposal, police, etc. services
and the impact of the project on these services,
Compensation for project related environmental impacts and social disruptive,
Family split
9.1 MITIGATION
Unemployment compensation,
Retraining for other jobs,
Relocation and enticements for new businesses to locate locally.
9.2 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IMPACTS
If environmental stress exceeds human tolerance level for prolonged periods of time,
Feeling of discomfort will arise,
Alertness will decrease,
Accident will occur,
Performance and productivity will drop.
The main sources of impacts are:
Poor handling of chemicals,
Fugitive emission within the plant from transport, blasting, and combustion,
Exposure to asbestos, cyanide, mercury or other toxic materials,
Exposure to heat, noise, vibration,
Mine fire, Heat strokes
Physical risk at the plant or at the site,
Threats to a miner’s safety may arise from:
Fall of roof, face, rib or side of a mine pit,
Haulage or other machinery accident,
Electrical equipments;
Explosives, or ignition or explosion of gas and dust;
Sudden inundation of water and gas;
Injuries and lose of life through suffocation;
Dust inhalation,
31
Disease such as silicosis, asbestosis and pneumoconiosis,
9.3 MITIGATION OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IMPACT
Dust control,
Use water for dust suppression
Apply exhaust ventilation
Dust filtration techniques
Control of noise and vibration
Use slower running equipments
Improve maintenance,
Replacing compressed air equipments by electrical devices,
Use air silencer, resilient mountings,
Establishment of policies and priorities to initiate safety programs
Provision of education and training;
Choice of personnel for specific job;
Commit resources;
Pro-active safety system ,
Provide leadership in safety.
9.4 GENDER DIMENSION OF MINING
Women are largely absent from the technical aspects of large scale mining operations for legal reasons such as the
International Labor Organization( ILO) convention 45 (Ref. Third World Network Africa, 2001), and women’s
limited capacity to manage gangs of men, risk involved in the sector, hostility and chauvinism from their male
counterparts in the field, limitation of women to invest in mining, and traditional reasons. In large scale mining
women are limited to legal, public relations and catering and financial work. The participation of women in
artisanal mining is higher in comparison to man. In Ethiopian there is no large scale mining and segregation of
women from men in mining operation at the moment. The artisanal mining for gold in most of the regions in
Ethiopia is managed by women and children.
However, it is important to recognize the potential social impact of mining operations on women and children. In
countries that have large scale mining, the people's ancestral land and natural resources have been plundered, and
the environment and indigenous culture eroded drastically as the long-term effects of large-scale mining take their
toll.
9.4.1 IMPACTS OF MINING ON WOMEN:
The effects of large-scale mining on women include the following:
Deprivation of ancestral land rights,
32
Loss of farm land;
Loss of traditional livelihood and impairment of the productive role of women,
The workload of women increases at home as men work in a cash economy created by mining operations
and women have increased responsibility for the household and food provision through traditional means;
Women suffer from an increased risk of HIV/AIDS and other STD infections, family violence, rape and
prostitution often fuelled by alcohol abuse and/or a transient male workforce;
Exposed to sexual exploitation,
Cultural impacts on women and children,
Ecological destruction,
Mining industry is conducive to HIV/AIDS transmission, increases sexually transmitted disease, spread of
communicable from migrant and transient miners; sexual harassment and increased incidences of violence
against woman in local communities by transient male mine workers,
Pressure on housing in time of rush for mining and other social service;
Water pollution from the mine;
Introduction of alcoholism (development of bars, sex shops) and drugs
Migration of husband to work as miner; it can end up on divorce
Inflation on the local economy;
Unfilled pits pose threat to women searching for fuel wood;
Limitation of access to herbs, traditional spices, plant materials for soap or
cosmetics, edible mushrooms that women use for their family.
9.4.1 MITIGATION
Gender awareness requires gender sensitive attitudes, a commitment to placing both women's and men's needs and
priorities at the centre of development work, analysing the impact of projects on women and men, and designing
projects that involve both women and men. It requires knowledge about the impact that development activities will
have on both women and men, which must involve an understanding of women's and men's social and economic
relations and experiences. control of resources, meeting practical gender needs does not necessarily challenge
existing gender norms. Practical gender needs, gender sensitivity gender analysis, empowerment, gender
mainstreaming, strategic gender interests–involve bringing about equality between men and women. They
transform gender relations by challenging women's disadvantaged position or lower status. Meeting strategic
gender interests involves working with men as well as women to change assumptions about women's role and place
in society. If these were met, the existing relationship of unequal power between women and men would be
transformed.
10 NVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
To minimize the impacts due to any mine activities on environment, preparation of environmental planning is
necessary. The environmental plan should include:
Erosion and sediment control plan,
Capacity of the structures,
Operations and maintenance of these structures,
Method of sediment retrieval,
Nature and location of sediment disposal facilities,
Wind erosion,
Water erosion,
Schedule of operations,
Mine development rock, ore and concentrate management,
Type of ore and rock that will be removed
The tonnage that will be removed,
33
The tonnage of tailing that will be placed on surface,
The backfill methods,
The slope, the face, and the pit wall stability,
Access and haulage routes
Safety and security plans for workers and public,
Tailing disposal and impoundment plane,
The area to be covered by waste piles
Site preparation plane,
Total height of each pile plane,
The original topography,
Tailing disposal methods,
Chemical characteristics of the tailings,
Acid generation potential of the tailings
The generation controls necessary for acid drainage,
Water management and treatment plane
Ongoing monitoring plane,
All impacts to be monitored,
Monitoring frequency,
Location of monitoring points,
Ongoing rehabilitation/ reclamation plan
Original topography plan
Superficial and bed rock geology
Plan of areas to be covered
Total height of each pile or dam
Material types, their physical and chemical properties,
Seepage control plan
Sewage sludge disposal plan
Chemicals and fuel storage and handling,
Buildings and infrastructure plan,
Nature and location of all structures,
Construction materials used,
Solid waste disposal pla,ne,
Work place air quality monitoring plan
Hazardous material handling plane,
Safety plane,
Resettlement plan for displaced people,
Mine closure planning,
Cost estimation and time line
Final land forms and configuration
Identifies and addresses risks and uncertainty
Defines implementation and post closure monitoring arrangements
Post-closure monitoring plan,
Surveillance, monitoring and auditing
Rehabilitation plan,
Physical stability plan,
Materials and structures remaining on site after operations have ceased
Chemical stability plan,
Acid mine drainage
Leaching of materials,
Measures for the control of chemical reactions and the treatment and control of drainage,
Human safety plan,
Future land use
11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Mining designers must consider the effects of mine on its surroundings. Engineering
alternatives have to be judged according to their environmental influence. After a plan is
adopted , the effects on the environment should be monitored.
34
In the early stages of a mining venture maintaining environmental quality is usually
inexpensive. However, stacking, line cutting, geophysical surveying and drilling are done
by contractors who may not be concerned with protecting the developers image.
When decision is made to bring an ore body into production, the local ecology along with
social and economic conditions should be studied. This provides base line data against
which to measure the effect of mining. Monitoring of the effect of mining include: physical
aspects such as depth, temperature, sediment texture, water characteristics such as colour,
terbidity, dissolved solids and organic content, toxicants such as heavy metals and
detergents, biota such as phytoplankton, concentration, plants, fish and bacteria.
Plant operation will affect the local economy and population distribution and will constitute
a new land use. Local road and the community water may be significantly affected.
The problem of acid contamination from mines and waste arises from the presence of
pyrite, pyrrhotite and chalcocite. Production of acide can be prevented by excluding any
one of oxygen, water or sulphides
The cost of antipollution program may be minimized by determining water quality before
operation start. This will prevent having to fulfill subsequent quality requirements that
exceed the natural conditions.
Recycling of water may be possible, thereby reducing fresh water requirements. This could
reduce the volume of water to be treated.
Reclamation requires establishing objectives for ultimate use of the site. Blasts should be
designed to avoid damaging vibration.
Government, mining companies and communities should as a minimum recognize
environmental management as a high priority, notably during the licensing process and
through the development and implementation of environmental management system.
These should include commitment to:
Early and comprehensive environmental impact assessment,
Pollution control and other preventive and mitigation measures,
Monitoring and auditing activities, and emergency response measures.
Establish environmental accountability in industry and Government at the highest
management and policy-making level,
Encourage employee at all level to recognize their responsibility for environmental
management and ensure that adequate resources, staff, and requisite training is
available to implement environmental plans,
Ensure the participation and dialogue with the affected community and other directly
interested parties on environmental aspects of all phases of mining activities,
Adopt environmentally sound technology in all phases of mining activities and
increase the emphasis on the transfer of appropriate technologies which mitigate
environmental impacts including those from small scale mining operations,
Adopt risk analysis and risk management in the development of regulation and in the
design, preparation, and decommissioning of mining activities, including the handling
and disposal of hazardous mining and other wastes,
35
Avoid the use of such environmental regulations that act as unnecessary barrier to
trade and investment,
Recognize the linkage between ecology, socio-cultural conditions and human health
and safety, both within the workplace and the natural environment,
Continuous improvement in environment performance,
APPENDICES
Appendix 1 AIR, WATER AND SOIL QUALITY STANDARDS
A, Air Quality Standards: Discharges to Air (Source: Ministry of Environment, British Columbia,
Canada. 1989).
Parameter Maximum discharge (parts per
billion)
Sulpher Dioxide
Annual arithmetic Mean
24 hour concentration
3 hour concentration
1 hour concentration
75.00
260.00
665.00
900.00
Antimony (Sb)
Arsenic (As)
Beryllium (Be)
Cadmium(Cd)
Chromium (Cr)
Copper(Cu)
Fluorine(F)
Lead (Pb)
Mercury (Hg)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Nickel (Ni)
Selenium (Se)
Uranium (U)
Vanadium (V)
Zinc (Zn)
0.50
1.00
0.1
0.30
0.10
2.50
2.00
2.50
1.00
2.50
0.10
0.50
6.00
1.00
2.50
B Soil Quality criteria ( Tentative Netherlands Soil Quality Criteria)
Soil quality criteria
Concentration (mg/kg dry weight)
Parameter A* B* C*
Arsenic (As)
Beryllium (Be)
Cadmium(Cd)
Chromium (Cr)
cobalt
Copper(Cu)
Lead (Pb)
Mercury (Hg)
Molybdenum
(Mo)
Nickel (Ni)
Tin
Zinc
20
200
1
100
20
50
50
0.5
10
50
20
200
30
400
5
250
50
100
150
2
40
100
50
500
50
2000
20
800
300
500
600
10
200
500
300
3000
A* Reference value for good soil.
B* Limiting value for soil quality having potential for harmful effects on human health or the
environment and requiring further investigation.
36
C* Limiting value for heavily polluted soil requiring remedial investigations and clean up.
Source guideline for soil clean up – Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Planning and
Environment, Soil, Water and Chemical substance Department, The Hague, Netherlands,
1983.
C Tentative Netherlands Ground and Surface Water Quality Criteria
Parameter Ground and surface water quality criteria
Concentration (mg/L)
A* B* C*
Arsenic (As)
Beryllium (Be)
Cadmium(Cd)
Chromium (Cr)
cobalt
Copper(Cu)
Lead (Pb)
Mercury (Hg)
Molybdenum
(Mo)
Nickel (Ni)
Tin
Zinc
10
50
1
20
20
20
20
0.2
5
20
10
50
30
100
2.5
50
50
50
50
0.5
20
50
30
200
100
500
10
200
200
200
200
2
100
200
150
800
D UK Environment Agency Environmental Quality Standards for Water
Parameters Environmental quality standards(parts per billion
for the elements)
PH
Arsenic (As)
Cadmium
Copper(Cu)
Iron
Nickel (Ni)
Zinc
6-9
50
1
28
1000
200
500
APPENDIX 2 SUGGESTED TABLE OF CONTENT FOR MINING STAGE EIA
STUDY REPORT
1 Background information and project objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Status of the project site
1.3 Ownership structure
1.4 Project objectives
1.5 Environmental impact assessment objectives
1.6 Legislative requirements
1.7 Analysis of need for the project
1.7.1 Corporate need
1.7.2 Export prospect
37
1.7.3 National benefit
2 Geology
2.1 Previous exploration and mining
2.2 Geological setting
2.3 Overburden/ inter-burden
2.4 Structures
2.5 Ore resource
2.6 Ore reserves
3 Project description
3.1 project concept
3.1.1 outline
3.1.2 site constraint
3.1.3 work practice implication
3.2 Production rates
3.3 Projected product sales
3.4 Overburden and inter-burden removal
3.5 The mining plan
3.6 geo-technical considerations
3.7 Transport
3.7.1 Ore, waste, concentrate
3.7.2 Chemical
3.8 Infrastructure
3.8.1 Construction facilities
3.8.2 Site access
3.8.3 Site development and earthwork
3.8.4 Site facilities
3.8.5 Power
3.8.6 Fuel storage
38
3.8.7 Maintenance and repair workshops
3.8.7.1 Laboratories
3.8.7.2 Temporary accommodation
3.9 Service activities
3.9.1 sewage and garbage disposal
3.9.2 chemical storage and handling
3.9.3 weed and pest control
3.9.4 medical service
3.10 Workforce
3.11 Workforce transport
3.11.1construction phase
3.11.2Operational phase
3.12 Energy
3.13 Alternatives
3.13.1No development option
4 Ore handling, preparation, and product transportation
4.1 Ore handling
4.2 Mineral preparation
Plant capacity
Ore handling and storage
Processing plant capacity
Product handling capacity
Rejects handling capacity
Train/truck loading capacity
4.2.2 Design basis and overall concept
4.2.3 Plant description
4.3 Product transportation
4.3.1 Reclaim and train/truck loading
39
4.4 Alternatives
4.4.1 Sitting of processing plant
4.4.2 Ore handling technology
5 Water Management
5.1Water management strategy
5.2Available water resources
5.2.1 Surface water
5.2.2 Groundwater
Site water source
Local, regional and national significance of water resources
Water consumption requirements
5.2.3 Nature of water requirements
5.2.4 Processing plant
5.2.5 Dust suppression
5.2.6 Bathhouse and industrial use
5.3Water control system
5.3.1 Water management control strategy
5.3.2 Water control network
5.4Performance under varying conditions
5.4.1 Extreme flow rate
5.4.2 Normal flow rates
5.5Water balance modeling
5.5.1 Methodology
5.5.2 Model inputs
5.5.3 Results
5.6Alternatives
5.7Hydrological and geochemical considerations
5.7.1 Hydrological considerations
40
5.7.2 Geochemical considerations
6 Rehabilitation
6.1 legal requirements
6.2 post-mining land use
6.2.1 alternatives
6.2.2 prefered post mining land use
6.3 Land form design
6.4 Revegetation procedure
7 Existing environmental and environmental impact assessment
7.1 Physiography
7.2 Soil
7.2.1 soil survey
7.2.2 soil p[rofile description
7.2.3 suitability of soils for stripping, stockpiling and topdressing
7.2.4 erosion status
7.2.5 environmental management of soils
7.2.6 Hydrology and water quality
7.2.7 Hydrologic history, flood level,
7.2.8 Surface water usage, water quality, monitoring program
7.2.9 Groundwater: aquifer characteristics, registerd groundwater bores
7.2.10Long and short-term impact assessments-hydrology and water quality
7.3 Climate and air quality
7.4 Acoustics
7.4.1 Major noise source from the project
7.4.2 Noise impact assessment
7.4.3 Nois mitigation
7.4.4 Blasting
7.5 Vegetation
7.5.1 Inventory of vegetation species
41
7.5.2 Open woodland and wholly cleared land
7.5.3 Vegetation along water ways
Population
Density
Valued population of species
7.6 Fauna
7.6.1 inventory of species
population
migratory characteristics
habitat
endangered, rare or threatened species
7.7 Historical background
Local history
Anthropology
Archaeology
7.8 Land use, capability, tenure and zoning
7.8.1 Land use
Traditional land use pattern
Cropping
Horticultural
Dairy farming
Drayland grazing
Urban land use
Agricultural trends
7.8.2 Rural land capability
7.8.3 Land tenure and zoning
7.9 Aesthetics
7.9.1 Existing landscape characteristics
42
7.9.2 Impact assessment-aesthetics
7.10 Transport
7.10.1Road network
7.10.2Impact assessment
7.11 Employment characteristics
7.11.1Effect of proposed development on employment
7.11.2Demographic characteristics
7.11.3Impact of the proposal on population
7.11.4Impact assessment-socio-economics
7.12 Housing and community services
7.12.1community service and facilities
sewage, water supply and garbage disposal
7.13.4health services
7.13.5community infrastructure
7.13.6vector control
7.13.7impact assessment-housing and community services
8 Environmental monitoring program
8.1 Air quality
8.2 Water quality
8.3 Geochemical
8.4 Noise and vibration
8.5 Rehabilitation
9 Project team and references
10 Appendices and figure
APPENDIX 3 CHECK LIST OF MINERAL AND PETROLEUM OPERATION
AND MINERAL PROCESSING
The EIA study should be checked if it fulfils one or more of the criteria set
out below.
43
1 Legal compliance:
A, Has the proposed project met the requirements of the mining, and petroleum
operation laws and environmental policy and laws of Ethiopia?
B, Provide lists of all permits existing, and current status of each permit
C, Were any citizen protest or comments filed
D, What is the status of the bond (not for exploration)
E, has the mine had a permit to use explosives
2 Phase of operation
A, Is the project in exploration, development, mining or smelting stage of operation?
B Was base line data survey conducted?
3 Will the project cause
a, substantial pollution problem on soil, surface water, groundwater?
b, create substantial waste disposal problem?
C, accident for the local population and the workers
D, affect areas which support animal and plant life or areas with particularly vulnerable
ecosystems?
E, lead to major change in the landscape?
F, Affect areas with historical/ cultural remains/aesthetic or scientific value
G, Change the way of life of the local population
H, Obstruct, or lead to substantial changes in the local population the exploitation or
use of natural resources other than those directly affected by the project?
I, Groundwater change?
J, Down stream water quality and water supply volume change?
4 Will the infrastructure development cause:
a, Soil erosion/silt runoff?
B, dust/noise/vibration/quarry hazard (blasting and hauling)?
5 Will the project require significant volumes of:
A, Local material?
B, Water or energy?
6 Socio-economic conditions
44
A Resettlement or compensation of local people?
B Will the size of affected population be significant?
C Will the project cause health problem?
D Will the Project cause existing land use change?
7 Will the project cause subsidence?
A, Does the mine include pillar removed mining?
C, Has there ever been any complaint by surface owner about surface subsidence?
D, Does the mine have any injection wells or pump any fluids or other material of any
type subsurface?
8 Waste disposal
A Does the pile have any public roads, homes or occupied dwellings, etc. down stream
that could be affected by failure
9 Impoundments and dams
10 Backfilling and slides
11 Subsurface injections
45
REFERENCES
1 Alistair Duncan, 1994, Environmental legislation and its influence on the mineral
industry, Green Markets for Minerals, Industrial minerals, Park House, Park Terrace,
Worcester Park, Surrey, USA.
2 Anthony M. Evans, 1995, Introduction to mineral exploration, Blackwell Science, PP.
12, 76, 271-2, 330-1,365-6,
3 Beijer Institute Center for Resource Assessment and Management and the Beijer
Institute, 1987, A planning Manual for managing Impacts, P 71-140, Sweden.
4 Carlos D. Da Rossa, J.D., 1997, Golden dreams poisoned streams, Mineral policy
center, Washinton DC.
5 CANMET Report 77-31, Reclamation by vegetation, vol. 1, Mine waste description and
case Histories, Pit slope manual, Energy, Mines and Resources Canada.
6 CANMET Report 77-2, 1997, Environmental Planning, Chapter 10, Mine waste
description and case Histories, Pit slope manual, Energy, Mines and Resources
Canada.
7 Department of Minerals and Energy, Guidelines to help you get environmental
approval for mining projects in western Australia ; Mineral house, east Perth,
Australia Http://www.dme.wagov.au/news/noi..pdf.
8 Environmental Protection Authority, May 2000, Environmental Impact Assessment
Guideline document, final draft report, page 33-36, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
9 European Union, June 1993, Environmental manual, procedures and methodology
governing Lome 1V development co-operation projects, section 12
10 G.Yohannes Habtezgi, 1998, Exploration, Mineral Development, the Environment and
Society in Ethiopia, Country report presented at Third World Network Africa
symposium, Accra, Ghana.
11 NORAD, 1993, Environmental impact assessment of development aid projects, check
lists for intial screening of projects, 4. reprinting, pp. 24
12 Petroleum Operation Department, 1986, Guidelines for Submission of Applications for
Petroleum production Sharing Agreement, Petroleum Operation Department, Ministry
of Mines, Addis Ababa
13 Howard L. Hartman, 1992, SME Mining Engineering Hand book, second edition,
society for mining, metallurgy and exploration, Inc, Littleton, Colorado, USA
14 Jay Wagner, 1998, Oil and gas operations and the changing nature of environmental
law in Latin America, Petroconsultant (U.K) Ltd, London.
15 Confederation of British Industry, 1994, Living with minerals, P 5-23, Published by the
Confederation of British Industry, Center Point, 103 New Oxford Street, UK.
16 Mining and the environment in Ethiopia, 1998, Chemical Society of Ethiopia, ed.
Gizachew Alemayohu (PhD), Proceedings of Workshop, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
46
http://www.dme.wagov.au/news/noi..pdf
17 Swaminathan Research foundation Environmental impact assessment, Chennai,
India.
18 Third World Network Africa, 2001, Mining, Development and Social Conflict in Africa,
Accra North Ghana
19 Jay Paul Wagner, 1998, Oil and gas operations and the changing nature of
environmental law in Latin America., International Bar Association. Journal of Energy
and Natural Resources Law, Vol. 16, No. 2, PP 153-185.
20 United Nations, 1997, Environmental policies, regulations and management practices
in mineral resources development in Asia and the Pacific, P 14-70, New York.
21 United Nations, ET/TCD/20, Environmental Guidelines for Mining Operation, UN
Department of Economic and Social Affairs and Environmental program, Industry and
Environment.
22 William C. Peters, 1987, Exploration and Mining Geology, second edition, John Wiley
& Sons, PP 619 – 625,
23 Konrad B. Krauskopf, 1982, Introduction to Geochemistry, second edition, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, London, PP. 231-257.
24 Patrick A. Domenico and Franklin W. Schwartz, 1990, Physical and chemical
Hydrogeology, John Wiley & Sons, New York, PP. 573-627
25 United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Mines Special publication SP 06A-
94, International land reclamation and drainage conference and third international
conference on the abatement of acidic drainage, volume 1 and 2.
47
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE GUIDELINE
1.2 OVERVIEW OF THE MINING INDUSTRY AND MINES LEGAL
FRAMEWORKS IN ETHIOPIA
The modern mineral exploration commenced in 1867 by Blanfor, British Geologist. Since then the exploration activities were on and off. During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia, exploration for minerals accelerated significantly than ever before. To day the exploration for minerals is progressing with the assistance of modern technology. The establishment of Geological Survey of Ethiopia accelerated further the exploration activities.
However, the discovery of economic mineral deposits were limited to the Adola Gold deposit and other few industrial minerals (soda ash, rock salt, potash, ceramics, etc) and construction materials (cement raw materials, dimension stones such as marble, granite, etc.). At present the mining industry (extraction of minerals) in Ethiopia is not very important in terms of its distribution, size, and its economic contribution.
According to reports released by the Ministry of Mines and other published studies more than 500,000 people are engaged in traditional construction material production and gold mining along several river banks and residue soil developed on primary gold deposits.
Extraction of industrial minerals and rocks and the artisanal mining activities for gold have already been reported to have caused environmental impacts, i.e, human death, erosion of arable land, etc.. The traditional miners at place use mercury, and remove plants which can cause change to the environment due to soil destruction, chemicalization of soil and water.
In the Ethiopian case the environmental problem associated with the traditional mining activities is more sever than in the modern mines which have legal entities. The traditional miners have not fulfilled legal requirements, no control of gold trade, mining planning, safety procedure, no documentation, poor sanitation condition, and no proper medical services. All those problems can cause environmental and social problems.
Digging, creating embankments, clearing shrubs, and trees contribute to the degradation of arable land. Dust produced by crushing, digging, sluicing can cause eye troubles, skin diseases, respiratory infections, and security problem, child labor, child prostitution are also problems associated with artisanal mining.
1.3 POLICY AND LEGAL REQUIREMENTS
The environmental policy, mineral and petroleum operation laws are some of the tools introduced in order to safeguard the environment form impacts related to these area.
1.4 REQUIREMENTS OF THE ETHIOPIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (1997), with regard to the minerals and energy (fossil fuel or petroleum and coal) development and use impact on the environment are spinning around the following points.
Long-term usability of land be safeguarded;
Promote environmental protection, safe mining method and reclamation of abandoned mining area;
Establish a guarantee for the restoration of the land to its previous conditions;
Promote development and sustainable utilization of renewable energy resources;
Reduce use of fossil energy;
Energy conservation;
1.5 CATEGORIES OF THE MINING LICENSES IN ETHIOPIA
The mining proclamation No. 52/1993, part I, article 2(9) has classified the mine licenses for mineral operations into three license ranks:
Prospecting license;
Exploration license, and
Mine for minerals (exploitation) license.
The license for mine for minerals in Ethiopia is subdivided further into:
1. Artisanal mining;
2. Small scale mining; and
3. Large scale mining.
1.6 REQUIREMENTS OF THE MINING AND PETROLEUM OPERATION LAWS
The proclamation No. 52/1993, mentioned above has provided different degree of right to the various licensees to use the natural resources, such as:
Construction minerals and rocks, water and timber is allowed, but is restricted not to use surface water if such use of water results in substantial reduction for other users or if it results in pollution. Dam construction and river diversion also need prior approval by concerned authority;
If displacement of the occupants is required the licensee should negotiate with the occupant for compensation payment or the Government intervenes and settle the dispute between the occupant and licensee;
Construct infrastructure necessary for operations, communications, roads, power, industrial, administrative, residential, medical and other buildings necessary for mining operations is permitted on temporary bases for prospecting, exploration and artisanal mining operators. All construction of permanent nature can be removed by the licensee or abandoned and become Government property;
The Petroleum Operations Proclamation No.295 of 1986 has stated areas precluded from petroleum operations; such as anthropological, archaeological, and historical objects and sites; prevent damage to subsurface formations and ensure petroleum, mud or any other fluids of substance do not waste or escape from the hole to surface,
If the Ministry of Mines thinks that the petroleum operations may endanger persons or property, harm natural resources or the general environment, can order to discontinue the operations. Environmental considerations with regard to the petroleum operations mainly focuses on exploration boreholes and their surroundings. It has not considered the environmental damage that might occur during the pre-drilling exploration activities and during production.
1.7 THE SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)
Local human population,
Local and regional wildlife population,
Local land use and overall ecology,
Change to land and water regimes and land contours,
The disposal of mine waste and tailings, together with other issues such as transportation of product to market all have to be evaluated.
The consequences of mineral, and hydrocarbon resource exploration and development on the environment is enormous and complex. Therefore, EIA study should be conducted by a team composed of:
Subject area expert (environmental geologist),
Pollution control,
Land use,
Socio-economist,
Ecologist, and
Environmental health experts.
Mineral and petroleum operation are projects of many stages. The collection of data for environmental impact assessment for mineral and petroleum operations should be made as part of this process. The environmental impact assessment study in mineral and petroleum operations should be separated into two categories. One is for operation that might terminate in the exploration stage, and the second for operations that might intend to a development and mine minerals and petroleum production. Basic base line data information needed include:
Geological, hydrogeological, botanical, zoological, archaeological, historical, cultural, sociological, and economic,
The existing land use,
The relative abundance, quality and regenerative capacity of natural resources in the area,
The absorption capacity of the natural environment
Trans-boundary impact and complexity,
Provide basic information for assessing any changes,
Set the initial level of element concentrations of surficial materials to be monitored in monitoring programs,
2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND MITIGATION CONSIDERATIONS
The purpose of mitigation is:
Find better way of developing mineral and petroleum resources,
Enhance environmental and social benefits,
Avoid, minimize or remedy adverse impacts,
Ensure that residual impacts are within acceptable limit,
2.1 Exploration
The exploration for minerals has two stages:
2.1.1 SURFACE EXPLORATION
Airborne and ground-based geochemical, and geophysical surveys, line cutting, stripping, and trenching, road/trail building and or helicopter transport, bulk sampling are the main activities of exploration.
2.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:
Environmental impacts of surface exploration are:
2.1.3 MITIGATION OF SURFACE EXPLORATION IMPACT
3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
3.1 THE MAJOR IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
Increase in traffic density;
Disturbance of subsurface formations;
Introduction of drilling fluids, drilling chemicals, surface water and drilling oils to subsurface environment, such as;
Salt saturated fluid,
Oil-based fluid;
Gas-based fluid;
Reagents such a sodium acid pyrophosphate, sodium tetra phosphate, lignite, tannin, low viscosity carbo-xynethyle, etc.
Draining of chemicals used for sample analysis at well site, such as HCl, HNO3, K3Fe(CN)6;
Morphological leveling (alteration) along the access;
Various level aquifer water mixing;
The production of camp waste, used engine oils, shipping garbage;
The risk of accidents (mechanical, electrical, blasting, etc);
Change of the existing land use (if drilling site lays on farm land);
Causing social disorder (change of social structure and customs, displacement);
The excavation of exploratory shafts, Adits or declines,
The digging of test pits and trenches, and the associated removal of material for bulk testing.
The installation of a portable pilot plant or other temporary facility for subsurface ore and rock testing purposes, or any other significant ground disturbance conducted to determine the existence of a commercially exploitable mineral deposit can destroy natural setup of rocks and can trigger artificial discontinuity on the rocks ,
3.1.2 MITIGATION MEASURES FOR IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
4 MITIGATION,COMPENSATION AND REABILITATION COST CONSIDERATIONS
Direct environmental costs
Assessment cost;
Base-line study cost,
Environmental impact analyses and report preparation cost;
Prevention cost, such as tailing dams construction;
Mitigation cost such as gaseous emission control and effluent/discharge control cost;
Closure and reclamation cost;
Waste disposal and contaminant control;
Waste and disposal stabilization,
Backfill of previous mined-out openings;
Compensation cost to affected parties or for irrecoverable damage to the environment;
Indirect environmental cost, such as telephone, electrical, transportation cost,
Management cost such as
Monitoring, stuff salary, training, etc should be taken into consideration during the financial analysis of the project.
4.1 MINE DEVELOPMENT (ESTABLISHMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE)
4.1.1 IMPACTS OF MINE DEVELOPMENT
4.1.2 QUARRIES
4.1.3 Impacts of quarry site
4.1.4 Mitigation
5 MINING (EXTRACTION OF MINERALS) AND MINERAL PROCESSING (SEPARATION OF ORE MINERALS FROM GANGUE),
5.1 MINE CLASSIFICATION
5.1.1 SURFACE MINING:
5.1.2 IMPACT OF SURFACE MINING
5.1.3 Impact of artisanal mining
5.1.4 Mitigation measures of artisanal mining impact
5.1.5 Impact of large scale surface mining
5.1.6 MITIGATION MEASURES OF LARGE SCALE SURFACE MINING IMPACTS
5.2 SUBSURFACE MINING:
5.2.1 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SUBSURFACE MINING
6 HYDROCARBONS (PETROLEUM AND COAL) AND THE ENVIRONMENT
6.1 GROUPS OF FOSSIL FUELS
6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF FOSSIL FUELS
6.2.1 IMPACTS OF COAL MINE ON ENVIRONMENT
6.2.2 IMPACTS OF COAL UTILIZATION
6.2.3 Mitigation of coal impacts
6.2.4 IMPACTS OF OIL AND GAS ON ENVIRONMENT
6.2.5 MITIGATION OF THE OIL FUEL IMPACTS:
7 SMELTING (RECOVERING OF METALS), REFINING, AND MARKETING
7.1 MITIGATION OF ACID DRAINAGE FROM MINE AND SMELTING SITES
8 MINE CLOSURE AND DECOMMISSIONING
8.1 IMPACTS OF IMPROPERLY CLOSED MINES
8.1.1 MITIGATION
8.1.2 Mitigation of mine site impacts
8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES DURING DECOMMISSIONING
8.3 ACTIVITIES (MITIGATION):
8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AFTER CLOSURE
8.4 MONITORING MEASURES
9 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF MINES CLOSURE ON LOCAL COMMUNITY
9.1 MITIGATION
9.2 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IMPACTS
9.3 MITIGATION OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IMPACT
9.4 GENDER DIMENSION OF MINING
9.4.1 IMPACTS OF MINING ON WOMEN:
9.4.1 MITIGATION
10 NVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Appendix 1 AIR, WATER AND SOIL QUALITY STANDARDS
APPENDIX 2 SUGGESTED TABLE OF CONTENT FOR MINING STAGE EIA STUDY REPORT
APPENDIX 3 CHECK LIST OF MINERAL AND PETROLEUM OPERATION AND MINERAL PROCESSING
REFERENCES
Law clause
- article 2(9)
- section 12
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